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失业了就去做试管，反正我的社保不会断一坏甜牛奶，心情恢复美丽
婆婆给了好多菜塞冰箱，今晚我们两个煮西兰花吃，因为没有炒菜的条件
晕死反正对于这个烹饪方式我眼不见为净，老公煮啥吃啥一会我洗碗，公平公正
看到你PO的面，我想到今天我朋友晒的泡面，加膏蟹加节虾的那种，哈哈哈天呐太恐怖了，我老公已经开始研究苦瓜怎么煮，准备当我明天的晚餐
太恐怖了如果一直就拖欠2个月，也还ok，毕竟现在经济形势不好，表面看似被迫不好的选择，其实基本也是同一个人当下情况下的最佳选择了，大差不差。平台暂停的消息爆出后，Voyager的股票在美国场外交易市场跌幅一度高达43%，最终收跌30.68%，报0.30美元/股。老娘要努力比她还屌高跟鞋定钉子老娘要努力比她还屌。
不知道啊。
该线路由山东汽配城开往山东技师学院。
BeyondFeelings
AGuidetoCriticalThinking
VincentRyanRuggiero
TothememoryofHowardTrumble,
whosequietpracticeoftheskills
detialedinthisbookwasaninspiration
tome,tohisfamily,andtoallwhoknewhim.
Contents
preface
Introduction1
PARTONETheContext
Chapter1WhoAreYou?
TheInfluenceofTimeandPlace
TheInfluenceofIdeas
TheinfluenceofMassCulture
The"Science"ofManipulation
TheInfluenceofPsychology
BecominganIndividual
Chapter2WhatIsCriticalThinking?
Mind,Brain,orBoth?
CriticalThinkingDefined
CharacteristicsofCriticalThinkers
TheRoleofIntuition
BasicActivitiesinCriticalThinking
CriticalThinkingandWriting
CriticalThinkingandDiscussion
AvoidingPlagiarism
Chapter3WhatIsTruth?
WhereDoesItAllBegin?
ImperfectPerception
ImperfectMemory
DeficientInformation
EventheWisestCanErr
TruthIsDiscovered,NotCreated
UnderstandingCauseandEffect
Chapter4WhatDoesItMeantoKnow?
RequirementsofKnowing
TestingYourOwnKnowledge
HowWeCometoKnow
WhyKnowingIsDifficult
ACautionaryTale
IsFaithaFormofKnowledge?
ObstaclestoKnowledge
Chapter5HowGoodAreYourOpinions?
OpinionsCanBeMistaken
OpinionsonMoralIssues
EvenExpertsCanBeWrong
KindsofErrors
InformedVersusUninformedOpinion
FormingOpinionsResponsibly
Chapter6WhatIsEvidence?
KindsofEvidence
EvaluatingEvidence
WhatConstitutesSufficientEvidence?
Chapter7WhatIsArgument?
ThePartsofanArgument
EvaluatingArguments
MoreDifficultArguments
PARTTWOThePitfalls
Chapter8TheBasicProblem:"MineIsBetter"
EgocentricPeople
EthnocentricPeople
Controlling"MineIsBetter"Thinking
Chapter9ErrorsofPerspective
PovertyofAspect
UnwarrentedAssumptions
TheEither/OrOutlook
MindlessConformity
Absolutism
Relativism
BiasfororAgainstChange
Chapter10ErrorsofProcedure
BiasedConsiderationofEvidence
DoubleStandard
HastyConclustion
OvergeneralizationandStereotyping
Oversimplification
ThePostHocFallacy
Chapter11ErrorsofExpression
Contradiction
ArguinginaCircle
MeaninglessStatement
MistakenAuthority
FalseAnalogy
IrrationalAppeal
Chapter12ErrorsofReaction
AutomaticRejection
ChangingtheSubject
ShiftingtheBurdenofProof
StrawMan
AttackingtheCritic
Chapter13TheErrorsinCombination
ErrorsofPerspective
ErrorsofProcedure
ErrorsofExpression
ErrorsofReaction
SampleCombinationsofErrors
ASensibleViewofTerminology
PARTTHREEAsTRATEGY
Chapter14KnowingYourself
CriticalThinkingInventory
UsingYourInventory
ChallengeandReward
Chapter15BeingObservant
ObservingPeople
ObservationinScienceandMedicine
TheRangeofApplication
BecomingMoreObservant
ReflectingonYourObservations
Chapter16SelectinganIssue
TheBasicRule:LessIsMore
HowtoLimitanIssue
SampleIssue:Pornography
SampleIssue:Boxing
SampleIssue:JuvenileCrime
NarrowingtheIssueFurther
Chapter17ConductingInquiry
WorkingwithInconclusiveResults
WheretoLookforINformation
KeepingFocused
HowMuchInquiryIsEnough?
ManagingLengthyMaterial
Chapter18FormingaJudgment
EvaluatingEvidence
EvaluatingYourSources'Arguments
MakingImportantDistinctions
ExpressingJudgments
Chapter19PersuadingOthers
GuidelinedsforPersuasion
AnUnpersuasivePresentation
APersuasivePresentation
Notes
IndexPreface
Whenthefirsteditionofthisbookappearedin1975,thedominantintellectualfocuswasstillsubjectiveity,feelings.Thatfocus,thelegacyofthe1960s,wasoriginallyanecessaryreactiontotherationalismandbehaviorismthatprecededit.Itdeclared,ineffect:"Peoplearenotrobots.Theyaremorethanthesumtotaloftheirphysiology.Theyhavehopes,dreams,emotions.Notwohumansarealikeeachhasasspecialperspective,auniquewayofperceivingtheworld.Andanyviewofhumanitythatignoresthissubjectivesideisadistortion."
Yet,despiteitsvalue,thefocusonfeelingswenttoofar.Likemanyothermovements,whatbeganasareactionagainstanextremeviewbecameanextremeviewitself.Theresultofthatextremismwasthemeglectofthinking.Thisbookwasdesignedtoanswerthatheglect.Theintroductiontothefirsteditionexplaineditsrationaleasfollows:
Theemphasisonsubjectivityservedtocorrectadangerousoversimplification.Butitisthekindofreactionthatcannotbesustainedforlongwithoutcausinganevenworsesituationtheneglectofthinking.Worsefortworeasons.First,becauseweliveinanageofmanipulation.Armiesofhuckstersanddemagoguesstandreadywiththerichresourcesofpsychologytoplayuponouremotionsandsubconsciousneedstopersuadeusthatsuperficialisprofound,harmfulisbeneficial,evilisvirtuous.Andfeelingsareespeciallyvulnerabletosuchmanipulation.
Secondly,becauseinvirtuallyeveryimportantareaofmodenlifelaw,medicine,government,education,science,business,andcommunityaffairswearebesetwithseriousproblemsandcomplexissuesthatdemandcarefulgatheringandweighingoffactsandinformedopinions,thoughtfulconsiderationofvariousconclusionsoractions,andjudiciousselectionofthebestconclusionormostappropriateaction....
[Today'scollegestudent]hasbeenconditionednottoundervaluesubjectivity,buttoovervalueit.Andsohedoesnotneedtohavehisfeelingsindulged.Rather,heneedstobetaughthowtosortouthisfeelings,decidetowhatextenttheyhavebeenshapedbyexternalinfluences,andevaluatethemcarefullywhentheyconflictamongthemselvesorwiththefeelingsofothers.Inshort,heneedstobetaughttothinkcritically.
Thereisanunfortunatetendencyamongmanytoviewfeelingandthoughtasmutuallyexclusive,toforceachoicebetweenthem.Ifwefocusonone,thenintheirviewwemustrejecttheother.Feeling,beingmorespontaneous,isanexcellentbeginningtothedevelopmentofconclusions.Andthought,beingmoredeliberate,providesawaytoidentifythebestandmostappropriatefeeling.Botharenatural.
Thinking,however,islessautomaticthanfeeling.Todoitwelldemandsasystematicapproachandguidedpractice.
Thegeneralattitudetowardthinkinghaschangedconsiderablysincethemid1970s.Theviewthatcriticalthinkingisanimportantskilltowhicheducationshouldgiveprominenceisnolongeraminorityview.Hundredsofvoiceshavejoinedthechoruscallingfortheadditionofcriticalthinkingobjectivestoexistingcoursesandeventhecreationofspecialcoursesinthinking.Thereislittledisagreementthatthechallengesofthenewmillenniumdemandmindsthatcanmovebeyondfeelingstoclear,impartial,criticalproblemsolvinganddecisionmaking.FeaturesofThisEdition
ThiseditionofBeyondFeelingsretainsthebasicorganizationofpreviouseditions.Thefirstsxectionexplainsthepsychological,philosophical,andsocialcontextinwhichcriticalthinkingtakesplaceanddescribesthehabitsandattitudesthatenhancesuchthinking.Thesecondsectionhelpsstudentsrecognizeandovercomecommonerrorsinthinking.Thethirdsectionprovidesastepbystepstrategyfordealingwithissues.
Withintheoveralldesgn,however,Ihavemadeanumberofchanges,mostinresponsetothehelpfulsuggestionsofreviewers.
InChapter1,anewsection"TheInflenceofIdeas"hasbeenadded.
InChapter3,anewsection=="UnderstandingCauseandEffect"hasbeenadded.
InChapter15,newexamplesofthevalueofobservationhavebeenadded.
InChapter17,thesubsection"Evaluateyourinformationsources"hasbeenexpanded.
Anumberofnew"DifferenceofOpinion"excerciseshavebeenadded.
Asinthepast,IhaveattemptedtofollowGeorgeOrwell'ssageadvece:"Neveruseaforeignphrase,ascientificword,orajargonwordifyoucanthinkofaneverdayEnglishequivalent."Thhisisnotalwayseasy.Whenlogiciansaretaughttermssuchasargumentumadhominem,nonsequitur,and"affirmingtheconsequent,"theynaturallywanttousethem.Argumentsfordoingsourgethemselvesuponus:forexample,"Thesearethemostpreciseterms.Don'tjointheranksofthecoddlersanddeprivestudentsofthem."InweakmomentsIsuccumbtothisappeal.(Untilthepreviousedition,forexample,Iincludedthetermenthymeme.Meaculpa...thereIgoagain.)Butistheprecisionofsuchtermstherealreasonformywantingtouserthem?Isitnotpossiblethatweprofessorsenjoyparadingourknowledgeorthatwearereluctanttospareourstudentsthestrugglewewereforcedtoundergo("Wesuffered,sotheyshouldtoo")?Itseemstomethatmodernculturealreadyprovidestomanyimpedimentstocriticalthinkingforustoaddmore.
Isitpossbletocarrythisplainlaguagecommitmenttoofar?Yes,andsomewillthinkIhavedonesoinavoidingtheterminferencesandspeakinginsteadofconclusions.ButIrespectfullydisagree.Lexicographerspontoutthatthedistinctionbetweenthesetermsisextremelysubtle,soitseemsmorereasonablenottodevotetimetoit.Alse,Iavoidusingthetermvalueswheneverpossibleforasomewhatdifferentreason.Thewordvalueissoassociatedwithrelativismthatitsuseinthiscontextcanunderminedthecrucialideathatargumentsdifferinquality.Formanystudents,thewordvalestriggersthethought,"Everyonehasarighttohisorhervalues;minearerightforme,andthoughtheymayneed'clarification'fromtimetotime,theyarenevertobequestioned."Thisthoughtimpedescriticalthinking.Acknowledgments
Iwishtoexpressmyappreciationtoallthosewhocontributedtothepreparationofthisedition.Specialthankstothosewhoreviewedthemanuscript:
AnnaVillegas,SanJoaquinDeltaCollege;
AimeeBissonette,InverHillsCommunityCollege;
JamesKruser,AlgredStateCollege;
SueCrowson,DelMarCollege;
ErinMurphy,UniversityofKentuchy;
AdrianPatten,UniversityofCincinnati;
DedaimiaStorrsWhitney,FranklinCollege;
LisaWeismanDavlantes,CaliforniaStateFullerton;
GeoffreyPhillipBellah,OrangeCoastCollege;
KarenHoffman,HoodCollege;
AimeeRossKilroy,LoyolaMarymountUniversity;
DeannaDavis,CollegeoftheCanyons
IamalsogratefultoHoghAugustine,DeltaCollege;LoriEbert,InternationalINstituteoftheAmericas;JohnGarcia,CerroCosoCommunityCollege;MichaelSmall,ShastaCollege;JoelBrouwer,MontcalmCommunityCollege;CynthiaGobatie,RiversideCimmunityCollege;AnneBenvennti,CerroCosoCollege;FredHeifnerJr.,CumberlandUniversity;andPhyllisToy,UniversityofSouthernIndiana.Introdeciton
BeyondFeelingsisdesignedtointroduceyoutothesubjectofcriticalthinking.Thesubjectmaybenewtoyoubecauseithasnotbeenemphasizedinmostelementaryandsecondaryschools.Infact,untilfairlyrecently,mostcollegesgaveitlittleattention.Forthepastfourdecades,thedominantemphasisihasbeenonsubjectivityratherthanobjectivity,onfeelingthaerthanonthought.
Overthepastseveraldecades,however,anumberofstudiesofAmerica'sschoolshavecriticizedtheneglectofcriticalthinking,andagrowingnumberofeducatorsandleadersinbusiness,industry,andtheprofessionshaveurgedthedevelopmentofnewcoursesandteachingmaterialstoovercomethatneglect.
Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatcriticalthinkingisoneofthemostimportantsubjectsyouwillstudyincollegeregardlessofyouracademicmajor.Thequalityofyourschoolwork,youreffortsinyourcareer,yourcontributionstocommunitylife,yourconductofpersonalaffairsallwilldependonyourabilitytosolveproblemnsandmakedecisions.
Thebookhasthreemainsections.Thefirst,"TheContext,"willhelpyouunderstandsubchimportantconceptsasindividuality,criticalthinking,Truth,knowledge,opinion,evidence,andargumentandovercomeattitudesandideasthatobstructcriticalthinking.Thesecondsection,"ThePitfalls,"willteachyoutorecognizeandavoidthemostcommonerrorsinthinking.Thethirdsection,"AStrategy,"willhelpyouacquirethevariousskillsusedinaddressingproblemsandissues.Thissectionincludestipsonidentifyingandovercomingyourpersonalintellectualweaknessesaswellastechniquesforbecomingmoreobsevant,clarifyingissues,conductinginquiries,evalatingevidence,analyzingotherpeople'sviews,andmakingsoundjudgments.
Attheendofeachchapter,youwillfindanumberofapplicatiionstochallengeyourcriticalthinkingandhelpyouexcerciseyourskills.Theseapplicationscoverproblemsandissuesbothtimelyandtimeless.Thefinalapplicationineachofthefirstthirteenchaptersinvitesyoutoexamineanespeciallyimportantissuesaboutwhichinformedopinionisdivided.
Studentssimetimesgettheideathatatextbookmustbereadpagebypageandthatreadingaheadviolatessomeunwrittenrule.Thisnotionismistaken.Students'backgroundknowledgevarieswidely;whatonestudentknowsverywell,anotherknowsonlyvaguelyandathirdistotallyunfamiliarwith.Anytimeyouneedorwanttolookaheadtoanexplanationinalaterchpter,byallmeansdoso.Let'ssayyoumakeastatementandafriendsays,"That'srelativism,pureandsimple."Ifyouaren'tsureexactlywhatshemeans,gototheindex,lookup"relativism,"proceedtotheappropriatepage,andfindout.
Lookingaheadisespeciallyprudentinthecaseofconceptsandproceduresrelevanttotheendofchapterapplication.Onesuchconcentisplagiarism.Ifyouarenotcompletelyclearonwhatconsitutesplagiasism,whyitisunacceptable,andhowtoavoidit,takeafewminutesrightnowtolearn.Lookforthesection"AvoidingPlagiarism"towardtheendoftheChapter2.Similarly,ifyouarenotasskilledasyouwouldliketobedoinglibraryorInternetresearch,itwouldbeagoodideatoreadChapter17now.Doingsocouldsaveyouragreatdealoftimeandeffortcompletinghomeworkassignments.以上是前言和简介部分，之前已打好，存在印象笔记里，总觉得看着不方便，也不能让更多人看到，于是选了这块八年前开始打字的地皮，希望能帮到大家~PARTONE:TheContextAnyonewhowishestomasteranactivitymustfirstunderstanditstoolsandrules.Thisisastrueofcriticalthinkingasitisofgolf,carpentry,flyingaplane,orbransurgery.Incriticalthinking,however,thetoolsarenotmaterilaobjectsbutconcepts,andtherulesgovernmentalratherthanphysicalperformance.
Thisfirstsectionexploressevenimportantconceptsindividuality,criticalthinking,truth,knowledge,opinion,evidence,andargumentwithachapterdevotedtoeach.Mostofhteseconceptsaresofamiliarthatyoumaybeincliendtowonderwhetherthereisanypointtoexamingthem.Thenanserisyes,forthreereasons.First,muchofwhatiscommonlybelievedabouttheseconceptsismistaken.Second,whoeverexaminsthemcarefullyisalwaysrewardedwithfreshinsights.Third,themorethoroughtyourknowledgeoftheseconcepts,themoreproficientyouwillbeinyourthinking.Chapter1WhoAreYou?Supposesomoneasked,"Whoareyou?"Itwouldbesimpleenoughttorespondwithyourname.Butifthepersonwantedtoknowtheentirestoryaboutwhoyouare,thequestionwouldbemoredifficulttoanswer.You'dobviouslyhavetogivethedetalsofyourheight,age,andweight.You'dalsohavetoincludeallyoursentimentsandpreferences,eventhesecretonesyou'veneversharedwithanyoneyouraffctionforyourlovedones;yourdesiretopleasethepeopleyouassociatewith;yourdislikeofyouroldersister'shusband;yourallegiancetoyourfavoritebeverage,brandofclothing,andmusic.
Yourattitudescouldn'tbeoverlookedeitheryourimpatiencewhenanissuegetscomplex,youraversiontocertiancourses,yourfearofhighplacesanddogsandspeakinginpublic.thelistwouldgoon.Tobecomplete,itwouldhavetoincludeallyourcharacteristicksnotonlythephysicalbutalsotheemotionalandintellectual.
Toprovideallthatinformationwouldbequiteachore.Butsupposethequestionerwasstillcuriousandasked,"Howdidyougetthewayyouare?"Ifyourpatiencewerenotyetexhausted,chancesareyou'danswersomethinglikethis:"I'mthiswaybecauseIchoosetobe,becauseI'veconsideredothersentimentsandpreferencesandattitudesandhavemakemyselections.TheonesIhavechosenfitmystyleandpersonalitybest."Thatanswerisnaturalenought,andinpartit'strue.Butinalargersense,it'snottrue.Theimpactoftheworldonallofusismuchgreaterthanmostofusrealize.TheInfluenceofTimeandPlaceNotonlyareyouamenberofaparticularspecies,HomoSapiens,butyoualsoexistataparticulartimeinthehistoryofthatspeciesandinaparticularplaceontheplanet.thattimeandplacearedefinedbyspecificcircumstances,understandings,beliefs,andcustoms,allofwhichlimityourexperienceandinfluenceyourthoughtpatterns.IfyouhadlivedinAmericaincolonialtimes,youlikelywouldhavehadnoobjectiontotheparacitceofbarringwomenfromservingonajury,enteringintoalegalcontract,owningproperty,orvoting.Ifyouhadlivedintheninetheenthcentury,youwouldhavehadnoobjectiontoyoungchildrenbeingdeniedaneducationandbeinghiredoutbytheirparentstoworksixteenhoursaday,norwouldyouhavegivenanythoughttothespecialneedsofadolescence.(theconceptofadolescencewasnotinventeduntil1904.)
IfyouhadbeenraisedintheMiddleEast,youwouldstandmuchclosertopeopleyouconversewiththanyoudoinAmerica.IfyouhadbeenraisedinIndeia,youmightbeperfectlycomfortablehavingyourparentschooseyourspouseforyou.IfyournativelanguagewereSpanishandyourknowledgeofEnglishmodest,youprobablywouldbeconfusedbysomeEnglishcolloquialisms.JamesHenslinofferstwoamusingexamplesofsuchconfusion:ChevroletNovasinitiallysoldverypoorlyinMexicobecausenovainSpanishmeans"itdoesn'twork";andPerduechickenswereregardedwithacertainsuspicion(orworse)becausethecompany'sslogan"Ittakesatoughmantomakeatenderchicken"becameinSpanish"Ittakesanarousedmantomakeachickenaffectionate".
PeoplewhogrowupinEurope,Asia,orSouthAmericahaveverydifferentideasofpunctuality.AsDanielGolemanexplains,"FiveminutesislatebutpermissibleforabusinessappontmentintheU.S.,butthirtyminutesisnormalinArabcountries.InEnglandfivetofifteenminutesisthe'correct'latenessforoneinvitedtodinner;anItalianmightcometwohourslate,anEthiopianstilllater,aJavanesenotatall,havingacceptedonlytopreventhishost'slosingface."Adifferentethnicoriginwouldalsomeandifferenttastesinfood.InsteadofcravingaNewYorkStropsteakandfrenchfries,youmightcrave"rawmonkeybrains"or"camel'smilkcheesepattiescuredindrycamel'sdung"andwasheddownwith"warmcamel'sblood."SociologistIanRobertsonsummeduptherangeofglobaldietarydifferencessuccinctly:"Americanseatoystersbutnotsnails.TheFrencheatsnailsbutnotlocusts.TheZuluseatlocustsbutnotfish.TheJewseatfishbutnotpork.TheHinduseatporkbutnotbeef.TheRussianseatbeefbutnotsnakes.TheChineseeatsnakesbutnotpeople.ThejaleofNewGuineafindpeopledelicious."[NOte:ThereferencetoHindusismistaken.]
Tosumup,livinginadifferentageorculturewouldmakeyouadifferentpersion.Evenifyourebelledagainstthevaluesofyourtimeandplace,theystillwouldrepresentthecontextofyourlifeinotherwords,theystillwouldinfluenceyourresponses.TheInfluenceofIdeas
Whenoneideaisexpressed,closelyrelatedideasaresimultaneouslyconveyed,logicallyandinescapably.Inlogic,thiskinshipisexpressedbythetermsequitur,Latinfor"itfollows."(Theconverseisnonsequitur,"itdoesnotfollow.")
Consider,forexcample,theideathatmanyteachersandparentsecpresstoyoungchildrenasawayofencouragingthem:"Ifyoubelieveinyourself,youcansucceedatanything."Fromthisitfollowsthatnothingelsebutbeliefneithertalentnorhardworkisnecessaryforsuccess.Thereasonthetwoideasareequivalentisthattheirmeaningsareinseparablylinked.
Inadditiontoconveyingideascloselylinkedtoitinmeaning,anideacanimplyotherideas.Forexample,theideathatthereisnorealdifferencebetweenvirtueandviceimpliesthatpeopleshouldnotfeelboundbycommonmoralstandards.SamuelJohnsonhadthisimplicationinmindwhenhesaid:"Butifhedoesreallythinkthatthereisnodistinctionbetwwnvirtueandvice,why,Sir,whenheleavesourhousesletuscountourspoons."
Ifwewerefullyawareofthecloselylinkedtoitinmeaningsandimplicationsoftheideasweencounter,wecouldeasilysortoutthesoundonesfromtheunsound,thewisefromthefoolish,andthehelpfulfromtheharmful.Butweareseldomfullyaware.Inmanycases,wetakeideasatfacevalueandembracethemwithlittleornothoughtoftheirassociatedmeaningsandimplications.Inthecourseoftime,ouractionsareshapedbythosemeaningsandimplications,whetherweareawareofthemornot.
Toappreciatetheinfluenceofideasinpeople'slives,considertheseriesofeventssetinmotionbyanideathatwaspopularinpsychologymorethanacenturyagoandwhoseinfluencecontinuestothisdaytheideathat"intelligenceisgeneticallydeterminedandcannotbeincreased."
Thatidealedresercherstodeviseteststhatmeasureintelligence.Themostfamous(badlyflawed)testdeterminedthattheaveragementalageofwhiteAmericanadultswas13andthat,amongimmigrants,theaverageRussian'smentalagewas11.34;theaverageItalian's11.01;theaveragePole's,10.74;andtheaveragementalageof"Negroes,"10.41.
Educatorsreadthetextresultsandthought,"Attemptstoraisestudents'intelligencearepointless,"sotheyreplacedacademiccurriculawithvocationalcurriculaandembracedamethodologythattaughtstudentsfactsbutnottheprocessofjudgment.
Legislatorsreadthetestresultsanddecided"We'vegottodosomethingtokeepintellecturallyinferiorpeoplefromenteringthecountry,"sotheyrevisedimmigrationlawstodiscriminateagainstsouthernandcentralEuropeans.
Eugenicists,whohadlongbeenconcernedaboutthewelfareofthehumanspecies,sawthetestsasagravewarning.Theythought,"Ifintelligencecannotbeincreased,wemustfindwaysofencouragingreproductionamongpeopleofhighterintelligenceanddiscouragingitamongthoseoflowerintelligence."
Theeugenicists'concerninspiredavarietyofactions.MargaretSanger'sPlannedParenthoodurgedthelowerclassestopracticecontraception.Otherssucceededinlegalizingpromotedforcedsterilization,notablyinVirginia.TheU.S.SupremeCourtupheldtheVirginialawwithJusticeOliverWendellHolmes,Jr.declaring,"Threegenerationsofimbecilesareenough."Overthenextfivedecades7,500women,incleding"unwedmother,prostitutes,pettycriminalsandchildrenwithdisciplinaryproblems"weresterilized.Inaddition,by1950over150,000supposedly"defective"children,manyrelativelynormal,wereheldagainsttheirwillininstitutions.They"enduredisolation,overcrowding,forcedlabor,andphysicalabuseincludinglobotomy,electroshock,andsurgicalsterilization."
Meanwhile,businessleadersreadthetestresultsanddecided,"Weneedpoliciestoensurethatworkersleavetheirmindsatthefactorygateandperformtheirassignedtasksmindlessly."Sotheyenactedthosepolicies.Decadeslater,whenEdwardsDemingporposedhis"qualitycontrol"ideasforinvolvingworkersindecisionmaking,businessleadersrememberedthosetestresultsandignoredDeming'sadvice.(Incontrast,theJapanesewelcomedDeming'sideas;asaresult,severaloftheirindustriessurgedaheadoftheirAmericancompetition.)
Thesearethemostobviouseffectsofhereditarianismbuttheyarecertainlynottheonlyones.Othersincludediscriminationagainstracialandethnicminoritiesandtheoftenpaternalisticpoliciesofgovernmentofferedinresponse.(somehistoriansalsolinkhereditarianismtothegenocidethatoccurredinNaziGermany.)
Theinnumerableideasyouhaveencounteredwillaffectyourbeliefsandbehaviorinsimilarwayssometimesslightly,atothertimesprofoundly.Andthiscanhappenevenifyouhavenotconsciouslyembracedtheideas.TheInfluenceofMassCulture
Incenturiespast,familyandteacherswerethedominant,andsometimestheonly,inflenceonchildren.Today,however,theinfluenceexertedbymassculture(thebroadcastmedia,newspaper,magazines,Internetandpopularmusic)oftenisgreater.
Byage18theaverageteenagerhasspent11,000hoursintheclassroomand22,000hoursinfrontofthetelevisionset.Heorshehashadperhaps13,000schoollessonsyethaswatchedmorethan750,000commercials.Byagethirtyfivethesamepersonhashadfewerthan20,000schoollessonsyethaswatchedaproximately45,000hoursoftelevisionandcloseto2millioncommercials.
Whateffectsdoesmassculturehaveonus?Toanswer,weneedonlyconsidertheformatsanddevicescommonlyusedinthemedia.Modernadvertisingtypicallybombardsthepublicwithslogansandtestimonialsbycelebrities.Thisapproachisdesignedtoappealtoemotionsandcreateartificialneedsforprodectsandservices.Asaresult,manypeopledevelopthehabitofrespondingemotionally,impulsively,andgulliblytosuchappeals.Theyalsotendtoacquirevaluesverydifferentfromthosetaughtinthehomeandtheschool.Adsoftenportrayplayasmorefulfillingthanwork,selfgratificationasmoredesirablethanselfcontrol,andmaterialismasmoremeaningfulthanidealism.
TelevisionProgrammersusefrequentsceneshiftsandsensoryappealssuchascarcrashes,violence,andsexualencounterstokeepaudienceinterestfromdiminishing.Thentheyaddfrequentcommercialinterruptions.Thisauthorhasanalyzedtheattentionshiftsthattelevisionviewersaresubjectedto.Inadramaticprogram,forexample,attentionshiftsmightincludecameraanglechanges;shiftsinstorylinefromonesetofcharacters(orsubplot)toanother,orfromapresentscenetoapastscene(flashback),ortofantasy;andshiftsto"newsbreaks,"tocommercialbreaks,fromonecommercialtoanotehr,andbacktotheprogram.Alsoincludedmightbeshiftsofattentionthatoccurwithincommercial.Ifoundasmanyas78shiftsperhour,exludingtheshiftswithincommercials.Thenumberofshiftswithincommercialsrangedfrom6to54andaveragedapproximately17perfifteensecondcommercial.Thetotalnumberofattentionshiftscameouttoover800perhour,orover14perminute.
Thismanipulationhaspreventedmanypeoplefromdevelopingamatureattentionspan.Theyexpecttheclassroomandtheworkplacetoprovidethesameconstentexcitementtheygetfromtelevision.That,ofcourse,isanimpoossibledemand,andwhenitisn'tmettheycalltheirteachersboringandtheirworkunfulfilling.Becausesuchpeopleseldomhavethepatiencetoreadbooksthatrequirethemtothink,manypublishershavereplacedseriousbookswithlightfarewrittenbycelebrities.
Evenwhenwritersofseriousbookdomanagetobecomepublishedauthors,theyareoftendirectedtogiveshort,dramaticanswersduringpromotionalinterviews,sometimesattheexpenseofaccuracy.Amanwhocoacheswritersfortalkshowsofferedoneclientthisadvice:"IfIaskyouwhetherthebudgetdeficitisagoodthingorabadthing,youshouldnotsay,'Well,itsimulatestheeconomybutitpassesonaburden.'Youhavetosay'It'sagreatidea!'or'It'saterribleidea!'Itdoesn'tmatterwhich."(Translation:"Don'tgiveabalancedanswer.Giveanoversimplifiedonebecauseitwillgetyounoticed.")
Printjournalismisalsointhegripofsensationalism.Asanewspapereditorobserved,"Journalistskeeptryingtofindpeoplewhoareat1orat9onascaleof1to10ratherthanpeopleat3to7[themoremoderatepositions]wheremostpeopleactuallyare."Anotherjournalistclaims,"Newsisnowbecomingmoreopinionthanverifiedfact.Journalistsareslippingintoentertainmentratherthantellingustheverifiedfactsweneedtoknow."
Today'spoliticiansoftenmanipulatepeoplemoreoffensivelythandojournalists.Instedofexpressiongtheirthought,somepoliticiansfindoutwhatpeoplethinkandpretendtosharetheirideas.Manypoliticianshirepeopletoconductpollsandfocusgroupstolearnwhatmessageswill"sell."Theyevengosofarastotesttheimpactofcertainwordsthatiswhywehearsomuchabout"trust,""familyu,""character,"and"values"thesedays.PoliticalscienceprofessorLarrySabatosaysthatduringtheClintonimpeachmenttrial,thepresidents'sadvisorsusedthetermprivatelivesoverandoverJamesCarvilleuseditsixtimesinonefourminutespeechbecausetheyknewitcouldpersuadepeopleintobelievingthepresident'slyingunderoathwasofnogreatconsequence.The"Science"ofManipulation
Attemptstoinfluencethethoughtsandactionsofothersarenodoubtasoldastime,butmanipulationdidnotbecomeascienceuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury,whenIvanPavlov,aRussianprofessorofpsychology,publishedhisresearchonconditioned(learned)reflexes.Pavlovfoundthatbyringingabellwhenhefedadog,hecouldconditionthedogtodroolatthesoundofthebellevenwhennofoodwaspresented.AnAmericanpsychologist,JohnWatson,wasimpressedwithPavlov'sfindingsandappliedthemtohumanbehavior.InWatson'smostfamousexperiment,heletababytouchalaboratoryrat.Atfirst,thebabywasunafraid.ButthenWatsonhitahammeragainstmetalwheneverthebabyreachedouttotouchtherat,andthebabybecamefrightenedandcried.Intime,thebabycriednotonlyatthesightoftherratbutalsoatthesightofanythingfurry,suchasastuffedanimal.Watson'sworkearnedhimthetitle"fatherofbehaviorism."
LesswellknownisWatson'sapplicationofbehavioristprinciplestoadvertising.Hespentthelatterpartofhiscareerworkingforadvertisingagenciesandsoonrecognizedthatthemosteffectiveappealtoconsumerswasnottothemindbuttotheemotions.Headvisedadvertisersto"tell[theconsumer]somethingthatwilltiehimupwithfear,somethingthatwillstirupamildrage,thatwillcalloutanaffectionateorloveresponse,orstrikeatadeeppsychologicalorhabitneed."Hisattitudetowasrdtheconsumerisperhapsbestindicatedbyastatementhemadeinapresentationtodepartmentstoreexecutives:"Theconsumeristothemanufacturer,thedepartmentstoresandtheadvertisingagencies,whatthegreenfrogistothephysiologist."
Watsonintroducedthesestrategiesinthe1920sand1930s,theageofnewpapersandradio.Sincetheadventoftelevision,theseadvertisingstrategieshavegrownmoresophisticatedandeffective,somuchsothatmanyindividualsandgroupwithpoliticalandsocialagendashaveadoptedthem.Thestrategiesworkforanumberofreasons,thechiefonebeingpeople'sconvictionthattheyareimpervioustomanipulation.Thisbeliefismistaken,asmanyresearchershavedemonstrated.Forexample,SolomonAschshowedthatpeople'sreactionscanbealteredsimplybychaingtheorderofwordsinaseries.Heaskedstudyparticipantstoevaluateapersonbyaseriesofadjectives.Whenheputpositiveadjectivesfirst"intelligent,industrious,impulsive,critical,stubborn,envious"theparticipantsgaveapositiveevaluation.Whenhereversedtheorder,with"envious"comingfirstand"intelligent"last,theygaveanegativeevaluation.
Similarly,researchhasshownthathumanmemorycanbemanipulated.Thewayaquestionisaskedcanchangethedetailsinaperson'smemoryandevenmakeapersonremembersomethingthatnverhappended!
Ofcourse,advertisersandpeoplewithpoliticalorsocialagendasarenotcontenttostimulateemotionsand/orplantideasinourminds.Theyalsoseektoreinforcethoseimpressionsbyrepeatingthemagainandagain.Themorepeoplehearasloganortalkingpoint,themorefamiliaritbecomes.Beforelong,itbecomesindistinguishablefromideasdevelopedthroughcarefulthought.Sadly,"thepackagingisoftendonesoeffectivelythattheviewer,listener,orreaderdoesnotmakeuphisownmindatall.Instead,heinsertsapackagedopinionintohismind,somewhatlikeinsertingaDVDintoaDVDplayer.Hethenpushesabuttonand'playsback'theopinionwheneveritseemsappropriatetodoso.Hehasperformedacceptablywithouthavinghadtothink."Manyofthebeliefsweholddearestanddefendmostvigorouslymayhavebeenplantedinourmindsinjustthisway.
Manyyearsago,HarryA.Overstreetnotedthat"aclimateofopinion,likeaphysicalclimate,issopervasiveathingthatthosewholivewithinitandknownoothertakeitforgranted."Theriseofmasscultureandthesophisticateduseofmanipulationhavemadethisinsightmorerelevanttodaythanever.TheInfluenceofPsychology
Thesocialandpsychologicaltheoriesofourtimealsohaveanimpactonourbeliefs.Beforethepastfewdecades,peoplewereurgedtobeselfdisciplined,selfcritical,andselfeffacing.Theywereurgedtopractivceselfdenial,toaspiretoselfknowledge,tobehaveinamannerthatensuredtheymaintainedselfrespect.Selfcenterednesswasconsideredavice."Hardwork,"theyweretold,"leadstoachievement,andthatinturnproducessatisfactionandselfconfidence."Byandlarge,ourgrandparentsinternalizedthoseteachings.Whentheyhonoredthemintheirbehavior,theyfeltproud;whentheydishonoredthem,theyfeltashamed.
Todaythetheorieshavebeenchangedindeed,almostexactlyreversed.Selfesteem,whichnineteenthcenturysatiristAmbroseBiercedefinedas"anerroneousappraisement,"isnowconsideredanimperative.Selfcenterednesshasbeentransformedfromviceintovirtue,andpeoplewhodevotetheirlivestohelpingothers,peopleonceconsideredheroicandsaintlike,arenowsaidtobeafflictedwith"adiseasetoplease."Theformulafforsuccessandhappinessbeginswithfeelinggoodaboutourselves.Studentswhodopoorlyinschool,wrkerswhodon'tmeasureuptothechallengesoftheirjobs,substanceabusers,lawbreakersallaretypicallydiagnosedasdeficientinselfesteem.
Inaddition,justasourgrandparentsinternalizedthesocialandpsychologicaltheoriesoftheirtime,somostcontemporaryAmericanshaveinternalizedthemessageofselfesteem.Wehearpeoplespeakofitovercoffee;wehearitendlesslyinvokedontalkshows.Challengestoitspreceptsareusuallymetwithdisapproval.
Butisn'tthetheoryofselfesteemselfevident?No.Anegativeperceptionofourabilitieswill,ofcourse,hadicapourperformance.Dr.MaxwellAmltzexplainstheamazingresultsoneeducatorhadinimprovingthegradesofschoolchildrenbychangingtheirselfimages.Theeducatorhadobservedthatwhenthechildrensawthemselvesasstupidinaparticularsubject(orstupidingeneral),theyunconsciouslysactedtoconfirmtheirselfimages.Theybelievedtheywerestupid,sotheyactedthatway.Reasoningthatitwastheirdefeatistattituderatherthananylackofabilitythatwasunderminingtheirefforts,theeducatorsetouttochangetheirselfimages.Hefoundthatwhenheaccomplishedthatn,theynolongerbehavedstupidly!Maltzconcludesfromthisandotherexamplesthatourexperiencescanworkakindofselfhypnotismonus,suggestingaconclusionaboutourselvesandthenurgingustomakeitcometrue.
ManyproponentsofselfesteemwentfarbeyondMaltz'sdemonstrationthatselfconfidenceisanimportantingredientinsuccess.Theyclaimedthatthereisnosuchthingastoomuchselfesteem.Researchdoesnotsupportthatclaim.Forexample,MartinSeligman,aneminentresearchpsychologistandfounderofthemovementknownaspositivepsychology,citessignificantevidencethat,ratherthansolvingpersonalandsocialproblems,includingdepression,themodernemphasisonselfesteemcausesthem.
Maltz'sresearchdocumentsthatlackofconfidenceimpedesperformance,avaluableinsight.Butsuichresearchdoesn'texplainwhjythemoregloabelconceptofselfesteemhasbecomesodominant.TheanswertothatquestionliesinthepopularizationoftheworkofhumanisticpsychologistssuchasAbrahamMaslow.Maslowdescribedwhathecalledthehierarchyofhumanneedsintheformofapyramid,withphysiologicalneed(foodanddrink)atthefoundation.Abovethem,inascendingorder,aresafetyneeds,theneedforbelongingnessandlove,theneedforesteemandapproval,andaestheticandcognitiveneeds(knowledge,understanding,etc.)Atthepinnacleistheneedforselfactualization,orfulfillmentofourpotential.InMaslow'view,thelowerneedsmustbefulfilledbeforethehigherones.It'seasytoseehowtheideathatselfesteemmustprecedeachievementwasderivedfromMaslow'stheory.
Othertheoriesmighthavebeenadopted,however.AnotableoneisAustrianpsychiatristViktorFrankl's,whichwasadvancedatroughlythesametimeasMaslow'sandwasbasedonbothFrankl'sprofessinalpracticeandhisexperiencesinHitler'ssconcentrationcamps.Franklarguesthatonehumanneedishigherthanselfactualization:selftranscendence,theneedtoriseabovenarrowabsorptionwithself.AccordingtoFrankl,"theprimordialanthropologicalfact[is]thatbeinghumanisbeingalwaysdirected,andpointingtosomethingorsomeoneotherthanoneself:toameaningtofulfilloranotherhumanbeingtoencounter,acausetoserveorapersontolove."Apersonbecomesfullyhuman"byforgettinghimselfandgivinghimself,overlookinghimselfandfocusingoutward."
makingselfactualization(orhappiness)thedirectobjectofourpursuit,inFrankl'sview,isultimatelyselfdefeating;suchfulfillmentcanoccuronlyas"theunintendedeffectofselftranscendence."Theproperperspectiveonlife,Franklbelieves,isnotwhatitcangivetous,butwhatitexpectsfromus;lifeisdailyevenhourlyquestioningus,challengingustoaccept"theresponsibilitytofindtherightanswertoitsproblemsandtofulfillthetaskswhichitconstantlysetsfor[eachofus]."
Findingmeaning,accordingtoFrankl'stheory,involves"perceivingapossibilityembeddedinreality"andsearchingforchallengingtasks"whosecompletionmightaddmeaningto[one's]existence."Butsuchperceivingandsearchingarefrustratedbythefocusonself:"Aslongasmodernliteratureconfinesitselfto,andcontentsitselfwith,selfexpressionnottosayselfexhibitionitreflectsitsauthors'senseoffutilityandabsurdity.Whatismoreimportan,italsocreatesabsurdity.Thisisunderstandableinlightofthefactthatmeaningmustbediscovered,itcannotbeinvented.Sensecannotbecreated,butwhatmaywellbecreatedisnonsense."
WhetherweadgreecompletelywithFrankl,onethingisclear:ContemporaryAmericanculturewouldbemarkedlydifferentiftheemphasisoverthepastseveraldecadeshadbeenonFrankl'theoryratherthanonthetheoriesofMaslowandtheotherhumanisticpsychologists.Allofuswouldhavebeenaffectedwecannolyimaginehowprofoundlyinourattitudes,values,andbeliefs.BecominganIndividual
INlightofwhatwehavediscussed,weshouldregardindividualitynotassomethingwearebornwithbutratherassomethingacquiredor,moreprecisely,earned.Individualitybeginsintherealizationthatitisimpossibletoescapebedinginfluencedbyotherpeopleandbycircumstance.Theessenceofindividualityisvigilance.Thefollowingguidelineswillhelpyouachievethis:
1.
Treatyourfirstreactiontoanyperson,issue,orsituationastentative.Nomatterhowappealingitmaybe,refusetoembraceituntilyouhaveexaminedit.
2.
Decidewhyyoureactedasyoudid.Considerwhetheryouborrowedthereactionfromsomeoneelseaparentorfriend,perhaps,oracelebrityorfictionalcharacterontelevision.Ifpossible,determinewhatspecificexperiencesconditionedyoutoreactthisway.
3.
Thinkofotherpossiblereacitonsyoumighthavehadtotheperson,issue,orsituation.
4.
Askyourselfwhetheroneoftheotherreactionsismoreappropriatethanyourfirstreaction.Andwhenyouanswer,resisttheinfluenceofyourconditioning.
Toensurethatyouwillreallybeanindividualandnotmerelyclaimtobeone,applytheseguidelinesthroughtoutyourworkinthisbook,aswellasinyoureverydaylife.Applications
Note:Oneofthebestwaystodevelopyourthinking(andwriting)skillsistorecordyourobservations,questions,andideasinajournalandthen,astimepermits,toreflectonwhatyouhaverecordedconsideringthemeaningandapplicationoftheobservations,answeringthequestions,elaboratingontheideas(and,whereappropriate,challengingthem),andrecordingyourinsights.Aninexpenseiveboundnotebookorspiralnotebookwillservethepurpose.Agoodapproachistorecordyourinitialobservations,questions,andideasontheleftsideofthepage,leavingtherightsideblankforyourlateranalysisandcommentary.Thevalueofthisreflectiveprocessissogreatthatyoushouldconsiderkeepingsuchajournalevenifyourinstructordoesnotmakeitaformalpartofthecourse.
1.
Doabriefstudyofattentionshiftssuchastheonedescribedinthechapter.Recordahalfhourshow.Thenplaytheshowbacktwice,thefirsttimecountingthenumberofshiftswhthintheprogram,excludingcommercials,andthesecondtimecountingonlythosewithincommercials.Completethenecessaryarithmeticandbepreparedtoshareyourresultsinclass.
2.
Reflectonyourfindingsinapplication1.Writeseveralparagraphsdiscussingtheimplicationsofthosefindingsforeducation,business,andfamilylife.
3.
Manypeoplecheerfullypay$6or$7agallonfordesignerfrinkingwaterbutmoanandgroanwhentheyhavetopey$3agallonforgasoline.Deosanythingyoureadinthischapterhelpyouunderstandwhythisisso?
4.
ImaginehowdifferentAmericamightbeifFrankl'semphasisonselftranscendenceandpersonalresponsibility,ratherthanMaslow'semphasisonselfactualizationandpopularculture'semphasisonselfesteem,ahdbeendominantforthepastfiftyyears.Listasmanywaysasyoucaninwhichoursocietymightbedifferenttodayandcommentonwhethereachwouldbebeneficialorharmful.Bepreparedtoexplainyourviewsinclassdiscussion.
5.
WatchoneofthemusicvideochannelsMTV,VH1,CMT,BETforatleastanhour.Analyzehowmenandwomenaredepictedinthevideos.Notesignificantdetails.Forexample,observewhethermenaredepictedinpowerrolesmorethanwomenandwhethermomenareportrayedasobjectsofmaledesire.Decidewhatattitudesandvaluesareconveyed.(Youmightwanttorecordasyouarewatchingsothatyoucanreviewwhatyouhaveseen,freezesignificantframesforcloseranalysis,andkeepyourobservationsforlaterreferenceorclassviewinganddiscussion.)
6.
Supposeyouaskedafriend,"Howdidyouacquireyourparticularidentityyoursentimentsandpreferencesandattitudes?"Thensupposethefriendresponded,"I'manindividual.Nooneelseinfluencesme.Idomyownthing,andIselectthesentimentsandpreferencesandattitudesthatsuitme."Howwouldyouexplaintoyourfriendwhatyoulearnedinthischapter?
7.
Askyourselfthequestion,WhoamI?Writedowntenanswerstothisquestion,eachonaseparateslipofpaper.Usethefirstthreeparagraphsofthischaptertohelpyouframeyouranswers.Arrangethepiecesofpaperinorderoftheirimportancetoyou.Thenexplainthearrangementthatis,whichselfdescriptionsaremostimportanttoyou,andwhy?
8.
Identifythevatiouspositiveandnegativeinfluencesthathaveshapedyou.Besuretoincluedetheparticularaswellasthegeneralandthesubtleaswellastheobviousinfluences.Whichofthoseinfluenceshavehadthegreatesteffectonyou?Explaintheeffectsaspreciselyasyoucan.
9.
Noteyourimmediatereactiontoeachofthefollowingstatements.Thenapplythefourguidelinesgiveninthischapterforachievingindividuality.
a.HealthcareworkersshouldberequiredtobetestedforHIV/AIDS.
b.Beautycontestsandtalentcompetitionsforchildrenshouldbebanned.
c.ExtremistgroupliketheKuKluxKlanshouldbeallowedtoholdralliesonpublicpropertyorbeissuedpermitstoholdparadesoncitystreets.
d.Freshmancompositionshouldbearequiredcourseforallstudents.
e.Highschoolandcollegeathletesshouldbetestedforanabolicsteroiduse.
f.Creationismshouldbetaughtinhighschoolbiologyclasses.
g.Polygamyshouldbelegalized.
h.Thevotingageshouldbeloweredtosixteen.
i.Theprisonsystemshouldgivegreateremphasistothepunishmentofinmatesthantotheirrehabilitation.
j.Doctorsandclinicsshouldberequiredtonotifyparentsofminorswhentheyprescribebirthcontroldevicesorfacilitateabortionsfortheminors.
k.Aman'sselfesteemisseverelyinjuredifhiswifemakesmoremoneythanhemakes.
l.Womenlikebeingdependentonmen.
10.Groupdiscussionexercise:Discussseveralofthestatementsinapplication9withtwoorthreeofyourclassmates,applyingthefourguidelinespresentedinthischapterfordevelopingindividuality.Bepreparedtoshareyourgroup'sideaswiththeclass.ADifferenceofOpinion
Thefollowingpassagesummarizesanimportantdifferenceofopinion.Afterreadingthestatement,usethelibraryand/ortheInternetandfindwhatknowledgeablepeoplehavesaidabouttheissue.Besuretocovertheentirerangeofviews.Thenassessthestrengthsandweaknessesofeach.Ifyouconcludethatoneviewisentirelycorrectandtheothersaremistaken,explainhowyoureachedthatconclusxion.If,asismorelikely,youfindthatoneviewismoreinsightfulthantheothersbutthattheyallmakesomevalidpoints,constructaviewofyourownthatcombinesinsightsfromallviewsandexplainwhythatviewisthemostreasonableofall.Presentyourresponseinacompositionoranoralreport,asyourinstructorspecifies.
Shouldcapturedterroristsbetriedinmilitaryorcriminalcourts?WhentheUnitedStatesdecidedtousethemilitarybaseatGuantanamoBay,Cuba,todetainindividualscapturedonthebattlefieldintheIraqwar,manypeopleprotestedthedecision.SomearguedthatcapturedindividualsshouldbeconsideredcriminalsratherthanprisonersofwarandaccordedtherightsguaranteedbytheU.S.constitutiontoallpeopleaccusedofcrimes.OthersarguedforclassifyingtheindividualsasprisonersofwarandtreatingthemasspecifiedintheGenevaConventionsof1949.Supportersofthegovernment'sdecisionrejectbotharguments,contendingthatcapturedterroristsareneithercriminalsnorsoldiersbut"unlawfulcombatants,"addingthatanyotherdesignationwouldimposeburdensontheUnitedStatesthatanyotherdesgnationwouldimposeburdensontheUnitedStatesthatwouldmakeitdifficulttofightterrorismandtherebythreatennationalsecurity.
BeginyouranalysibyconductingaGooglesearchusingtheterm"statuscapturedterrorists."
CHAPTER2WhatIsCriticalThinking?
WhenArthurwasinthefirstgrade,theteacherdirecterdtheclassto"think.""Now,lcass,"shesiad,"Iknowthisprobelmisalittleharderthantheoneswe'vebeendoing,butI'mgoingtogiveyouafewextraminutestothinkaboutit.Nowstartthinking."
ItwasnotthefirsttimeArthurhadheardthewordused.He'dhearditmanytimesathome,butneverquitethisway.Theteacherseemedtobeaskingforsomespecialactivity,somethingheshouldknowhowtostartandstoplikehisfather'scar."Vroommm,"hemutteredhalfaloud.Becauseofhisconfusion,hewasunawarehewasmakingthenoise.
"Arthur,pleasestopmakingnoisesandstartthinking."
Embarrassedandnotknowingquitewhattodo,helookeddownathisdesk.then,outofthecornerofhiseye,henoticedthatthelittlegirlnexttohimwasstaringattheceiling."Maybethat'sthewayyoustartthinking,"heguessed.Hedecidedtheothershadprobablylearnedhowtodoitlastyear,thattimehewashomewiththemeasles.Sohestareattheceiling.
Asheprogressedthroughtgradeschoolandhighschool,heheardthatsamedirectionhundredsoftimes."No,that'snottheanswer,you'renotthinkingnowthink!"Andoccasionallyhewouldhearfromparticularlyselfpityingteachersgiventomutteringtothemselvesaloud:"WhatdidIdotodeservethis?Don'ttheyteachthemanythinginthegradesanymore?Don'tyoupeoplecareaboutideas?Think,dammit,THINK."
SoArthurlearnedtofeelsomewhatguiltyaboutthewholematter.Obviously,thisthinkingwasanimportantactivitythathe'dfailedtolearn.Maybehelacckedthegrainpower.Buthewasresourcefulenough.Hewatchedtheotherstudentsanddidwhattheydid.Wheneverateacherstartedinaboutthinking,hescreweduphisface,furrowedhisbrow,scratchedhishead,strokedhischin,staredoffintospaceorupattheceiling,andrepeatedsilentlytohimself,"Let'sseenow,I'vegottothinkaboutthat,think,thinkIhopehedoesn'tcallonmethink.ThoughtArthurdidn'tknowit,that'sjustwhattheotherstudentsweresayingtothemselves.
YourexperiencemayhavebeensimilartoArthur's.Inotherwords,manypeoplemayhavesimpleytoldyoutothinkwithouteverexplainingwhatthinkingisandwhatqualitiesagoodthinkerhasthatapoorthinkerlacks.Ifthatisthecase,youhavealotofcompany.Extensive,effectivetraininginthinkingistheexceptionratherthantherule.Thisfactanditsunfortunatecnsequencesaresuggestedbythefollowingcommentsfromaccomplishedobserversofthehumancondition:
Themostinterestingandastoundingcontradictioninlifeistometheconstantinsistencebynearlyallpeopleupon"logic,""logicalreasoning,""soundreasoning,"ontheonehadn,andontheothertheirinabilitytodisplayit,andtheirunwillingnesstoacceptitwhendisplayedbyothers.
Mostofoursocalledreasoningconsistsinfindingargumentsforgoingonbelievingaswealreadydo.
Clearthinkingisaveryrarething,butevenjustplainthinkingisalmostasrare.Mostofusmostofthetimedonotthinkatall.Webelieveandwefeel,butwedonotthink.
Mentalindolenceisoneofthecommonestofhumantraints.
Whatisthisactivitythateveryoneclaimsisimportantbutfewpeoplehavemastered?Thinkingisageneraltermusedtocovernumerousactivities,fromdaydreamingtorelectionandanalysis.HerearejustsomeofthesynonymslistedinRoget'sThesaurusforthink:
appreciateconsultfancyreason
believecontemplateimaginereflect
cerebratedeliberatemeditateruminate
cogitatedigestmusespeculate
conceivediscusspondersuppose
considerdreamrealizeweigh
Allofthosearejustthenamesthatthinkinggoesunder.Theyreallydon'texplainit.thefactis,afterthousandsofyearsofhumans'experiencingthoughtandtalkingandwritingaboutthinking,itremainsinmanyrespectsoneofthegreatmysteriesofourexistence.Still,thoughmuchisyettobelearned,agreatdealisalreadyknown.Mind,Brain,orBoth?
Mostmodernresearchersusethewordmindsynonymouslywithbrain,asifthephysicalorganthatresidesinthehumanskullweresolelyresponsibleforthinking.Thispracticeconvenientlypresupposesthataproblemthathaschallengedthegreatestthinkersformillenniatherelationshipbetweenmindandphysicalmatterwassomehowsolvedwhennoonewaslooking.theproblemitselfandtheindividualswhospenttheirliveswrestlingwithitdeservebetter.
Neurosciencehasprovidedanumbberofvaluableinsightsintothecognitiveorthinkingactivitiesofthebrain.Ithasdocumentedthatthelefthemisphereofthebraindealsmainlywithdetailedlaguageprocessingandisassociatedwithanalysisandlogicalthinking,thattherighthemispheredealsmainlywithsensoryimagesandisassociatedwithintuitionandcreativethinking,andthatthesmallbundleofnervesthatliesbetweenthehemispheresthecorpuscallosumintegratesthevatiousfunctions.
Theresearchthatproducedtheseinsightsshowedthatthebrainisnecessaryforthought,butithasnotshownthatthebrainissufficientforthought.Infact,manyphilosopherslcaimitcannevershowthat.Theyarguethatthemindandthebrainaredemonstrablydifferent.Whereasthebrainisaphysicalentitycomposedofmatterandthereforesubjecttodecay,themindisametaphysicalentity.Examinebraincellsunderthemostpowerfulmicroscopeandyouwillneverseeanideaorconceptforexample,beauty,government,equality,orlovebecauseideasandconceptsarenotmaterilaentitiesandsohavemophysicaldimension.Where,then,dothesenonmaterialthingsreside?Inthenonmaterialmind.
ThelateAmeircanphilosopherWilliamBarrattobservedthat"historyis,fundamentally,theadventureofhumanconsciousness"and"thefundamentalhistoryofhumankindisthehistoryofmind."Inhisview,"oneofthesupremeironiesofmodernhistory"isthefactthatscience,whichownsitsveryexistencetothehumanmind,hashavtheaudacitytodenytherealityofthemind.Asheputit,"theoffspringdeniestheparent."
theargumentoverwhetherthemindisarealityisnottheonlyissueaboutthemindthathasbeenhotlydebatedoverthecenturies.Oneespeciallyimportanissueiswhetherthemindispassive,ablankslateonwhichexperiencewrites,asJohnLockeheld,oractive,avehiclebywhichwetaketheinitiativeandexcerciseourfreewill,asG.W.Leibnitzargued.thisbookisbasedonthelatterview.
CriticalthinkingDefined
Let'sbeginbymakingtheimportantdistinctionbetweenthinkingandfeeling.Ifeelandthinkaresometimesusedinterchangeably,butthatpracticecausesconfusion.Feelingisasubjectiveresponsethatreflectsemotion,sentiments,ordesire;itgenerallyoccursspontaneouslyratherthanthroughaconsciousmentalact.Wedon'thavetoemployourmindstofeelangrywhenweareinsulted,afraidwhenwearethreatened,orcompassionatewhenweseeapictureofastarvingchild.Thefelingsariseautomatically.
Feelingisusefulindirectingourattentiontomattersweshouldthingkabout;italsocanprovidetheenthusiasmandcommitmentnecessarytocompletearduousmentaltasks.However,feelingisneveragoodsubstituteforthinkingbecauseitisnotoriouslyunreliable.Somefeelingsarebeneficial,honorable,evennoble;othersarenot,aseverydayexperiencedemonstrates.Weofrenfeelilikedooingthingsthatwillharmusforexample,smoking,sunbathingwithoutsunscreen,tellingoffourprofessororemployer,orspendingtherentmoneyonlotterytickets.
ZinedineZidanewasoneofthegreatestsoccerplayersofhisgeneration,andmanyexpertsbelievedthatinhisfinalseason(2006)hewouldleadFrancetothepinnacleofsoccersuccesswinningthecovetedWorldCup.butthen,towardtheendofthechampionshipgameagainstItaly,heviciouslyheadbuttedanItalianplayerinfullviewofhundredsofmillionsofpeople.Therefereebanishedhimfromthefield,Francelostthematch,andasinglesurrendertofeelingforeverstainedthebrilliantcareerZidanehaddedicatedhislifetobuilding.Incontrasttofelling,thinkingisaconsciousmentalprocessperformedtosolveaproblem,makeadecision,orgainunderstanding.Whereasfeelinghasnopurposebeyondexpressiongitself,thinkingaimsbeyonditselftoknowledgeoraction.Thisisnottosaythatthinkingisinfallible;infact,agoodpartofthisbookisdevotedtoexposingerrorsinthinkingandshowingyouhowtoavoidthem.Yetforallitsshortcomings,thinkingisthemostreliableguidetoactionwehumanspossess.Tosumuptherelationshipbetweenfeelingandthnking,feelingsneedtobetestedbeforebeingtrusted,andthinkingisthemostreasonableandreliablewaytotestthem.
Therearethreebroadcategoriesofthinking:reflective,creative,andcritical.thefocusofthisbookisoncriticalthinking.theessenceofcriticalthinkingisevaluation.Criticalthinking,therefore,maybedefinedastheprocessbywhichwetestclaimsandargumentsanddeterminewhichhavemeritandwhichdonot.Inotherword,criticalthinkingisasearchforanswers,aquest.Notsurprisingly,oneofthemostimportanttechniquesusedincriticalthinkingisaskingprobingquestions.Wheretheuncriticalaccepttheirfirstthoughtsandotherpeople'sstatementsatfacevalue,criticalthinkerschallengeallideasinthismanner:
Thought:
ProfessorVilecheatedmeinmycompositiongrade.Heweightedsomethemesmorehavilythanothers.
Question:
Didhegradeeveryoneonthesamestadard?Werethedifferentweightingsjustified?
Thought:
Beforewomenenteredtheworkforce,therewerefewerdivorces.Thatshowsthatawoman'splaceisinthehome.
Question:
Howdoyouknowthatthisfactor,andnotsomeotherone(s),isresponsiblefortheincreaseindivorces?
Thought:
Acollegeeducationisn'tworthwhatyoupayforit.Somepeopleneverreachasalarylevelappreciablyhigherthantheleveltheywouldhavereachedwithoutthedegree.
Question:
Ismoneytheonlymeasureoftheworthofaneducation?Whataboutincreasedunderstandingofselfandlifeandincreasedabilitytocopewithchallenges?Criticalthinkingalsoemploysquestionstoanalyzeissues.Consider,forexample,thesubjectofvalues.whenitisbeingdiscussed,somepeoplesay,"Ourcountryhaslostitstraditionalvalues"and"Therewouldbelesscrime,especiallyviolentcrime,ifparentsandteachersemphasizedmoralvalues."Criticalthinkingwouldpromptustoask,
1.Whatistherelationshipbetweenvaluesandbeliefs?Betweenvaluesandconvictions?
2.AreallvaluesValueable?
3.Howawareistheaveragepersonofhisorhervalues?Isitpossiblethatmanypeopledeceivethemselvesabouttheirrealvalues?
4.Wheredoone'svaluesoriginate?Withintheindividualoroutside?Inthoughtorinfeeling?
5.Doeseducationchangeaperson'svalues?Ifso,isthischangealwaysforthebetter?
6.Shouldparentsandteachersattempttoshapechildren'svalues?CharacteristicsofCriticalThinkers
Anumberofmisconceptionsexistaboutcriticalthinking.Oneisthatbeingabletosupportbeliefswithreasonsmakesoneacriticalthinker.Virtuallyeveryonehasreasons,howeverweaktheymaybe.Therestofcriticalthinkingiswhetherthereasonsaregoodandsufficient.
Anothermisconceptionisthatcriticalthinersneverimitateothersinthoughtoraction.I(fthatwerethecase,theneveryeccentricwouldbeacriticalthinker.Criticalthinkingmeansmakingsounddecisions,regardlessofhowcommonoruncommonthosedecisionsare.
Itisalsoamisconceptionthatcriticalthinkingissynonymouswithhavingalotofrightanswersinone'shead.There'snothingwrongwithhavingrightanswers,ofcourse.Butcriticalthinkinginvolvestheprocessoffindinganswerswhentheyarenotsoreadilyavailable.
Andyetanothermisconceptionisthatcriticalthinkingcannotbelearned,thatoneeitherhasitordoesnot.Onthecontrary,criticalthingkingisamatterofhabit.themostcareless,sloppythinkercanbecomeacriticalthinkerbydevelopingthecharacteristicsofacriticalthinker.Thisisnottosaythatallpeoplehaveequalthinkingpotentialbutratherthateveryonecanachievedramaticimprovement.
Wehavealreadynotedonecharacteristicofcriticalthinkersskillinaskingappropriatequestions.Anotheriscontrolofone'ementalactivities.JohnDewayonceobservedthatmoreofourtimethanmostofuscaretoadmitisspent"triflingwithmentalpictures,randomrecollections,pleasantbutunfoundedhopes,flitting,halfdevelopedimpresstions."Goodthinkersarenoexcepiton.However,theyhavelearnedbetterthanpoorthinkershowtostopthatcasual,semiconsciousdriftofimageswhentheywishandhowtofixthieirmindsononespecificmatter,examineitcarefully,andformajudgmentaboutit.Tehyhavelearned,inotherwords,howtotakechargeoftheirthoughts,tousertheirmindsactivelyaswellaspassively.
Herearesomeadditionalcharacteristicsofcriticalthinkers,ascontrastedwiththoseofuncriticalthinkers:
CriticalThinkers...
Arehonestwiththemselves,acknowledgingwhattheydon'tknow,recognizingtheirlimitations,andbeingwatchfuloftheirownerrors.
Regardproblemsandcontroversialissuesasexcitingchallenges.
Striveforunderstanding,keepcuriosityalive,remainpatientwithcomplexity,andarereadytoinvesttimetoovercomeconfusion.
Basejudgmentsonevidenceratherthanpersonalpreferences,deferringjudgmentwheneverevidenceisinsufficient.Theyrevisejudggmentswhennewevidencerevealserror.
UnciricalThinkers...
Pretendtheyknowmorethantheydo,ignoretheirlimitations,andassumetheirviewsareerrorfree.
Regardproblemsandcontroversialissuesasnuisancesorthreatstotheirego.
Areimpatientwithcomplexityandthuswouldratherremainconfusedthanmaketheefforttounderstand.
Basejudgemntsonfirstimpressionsandgutreactions.Theyareunconcernedabouttheamountorqualityofevidenceandclingtotheirviewssteadfastly.CriticalThinkers...
Areinterestedinotherpeople'sideasandsoarewillingtoreadandlistenattentively,evenwhentheytenttodisagreewiththeotherperson.
Recognizethatextremeviews(whetherconservativeorliberral)areseldomcorrect,sotheyavoidthem,practicefairmindedness,andseekabalancedview.
Practicerestraint,controllingtheirfeelingsratherthanbeingcontrolledbythem,andthinkingbeforeacting.
UnciricalThinkers...
Arepreoccupiedwiththemselvesandtheirownopinionsandsoareunwillingtopayattentiontoothers'views.Atthefirstsignofdisagreement,theytendtothink,"HowcanIrefutethis?"
Ignoretheneedforbalanceandgivepreferencetoviewsthatsupporttheirestablishedviews.
Tendtofollowtheirfeelingsandactimpulsively.
Asthedesirablequalitiessuggest,criticalthinkingdependsonmentaldiscipline.Effectivethinkersexertcontrolovertheirmentallife,directtheirthoughtsratherthanbeingdirectedbythem,andwithholdtheirendorsementofanyideaeventheirownuntiltheyhavetestedandconfirmedit.JohnDeweyequatedthismentaldisciplinewithfreedom.Thatis,hearguedthatpeoplewhodonothaveitarenotfreepersonsbutslavestowhimorcircumstance:
Ifaman'sactionsarenotguidedbythoughtfulconclusions,thentheyareguidedbyinconsiderateimpulse,unbalancedappetite,caprice,orthecircumstancesofthemoment.Tocultivateunhindered,unreflectiveexternalactivityistofosterenslavement,foritleavesthepersonatthemercyofappetite,sense,andcircumstance.
TheRoleofIntuition
INtuitioniscommonlydefinedasimmediateperceptionorcomprehensionofsomethingthatis,sensiingorunderstandingsomethingwithouttheuseofreasonging.Someeverydayexperiencesseemtosupportthisdefinition.Youmayhavemetastrangerandinstantly"known"thatyouwouldbepartnersforlife.Whenacarsalesmantoldyouthatthepricehewasquotingyouwashisfinal,rockbottomprice,yourintuitionmayhavetoldyouhewaslying.Onthefirstdayofaparticularcourse,youmayhavehadastrongsensethatyouwouldnotdowellinit.
Someimportantdiscoveriesseemtohaveoccurredinstantaneously.Forexample,theGermanchemistKelulefoundthesolutiontoadifficultchemicalproblemintuitively.Hewasverytiredwhenheslippedintoadaydream.Theimageofasnakeswallowingitstailcametohimandthatprovidedthecluetothestructureofthebenzenemolecule,whichisaring,rahterthanachain,ofatoms.TheGermanwriterGoethehadbeenexperienceinggreatdifficultyorganizingalargemassofmaterialforoneofhisworkswhenhelearnedofthetragicsuicideofaclosefriend.Atthatveryinstant,theplanfororganizinghismaterilaoccurredtohimindetail.TheEnglishwriterSamuelTaylorColeridge(youmanhavereadhisRimeoftheAncientMarinerinhighschool)awokefromadreamwith200300linesofanewandcomplexpoemclearlyinmind.
Suchexamplesseemtosuggestthatintuitionisverydifferentfromreasoningandisnotinfluencedbyit.butbeforeacceptingthatconclusion,considerthesefacts:
Breakthroughideasfavortrained,activeminds.Itisunusualforsomeonetotallyuntrainedinasubjecttomakeasignificantnewdiscoveryaboutit.Thus,ifKekulehadbeenaplumber,Goetheabookkeeper,andColeridgeahairdresser,theywouldalmostcertainlynothavereceivedtheintuitionsforwhichtheyarefamous.
Someintuitionseventuallyprovetobemistaken.Thatyattractivestrangermayturnouttobenotyourlifelongpartnerbutapersonforwhomyoudevelopastrongdislike.Thecarsalesman'sfinalpricemayhaveprovedtobeexactlythat.Andinsteadofdoingpoorlyinthatcourse,youmayhavedonewell.
Itisdifficulttomakeanoverallassessmentofthequalityofourintuiotionsbecausewetentdtoforgettheonesthatprovemistakeninmuchthesamewayagamblerforgetshislosses.
Thesefactshaveledsomescholarstoconcludethatintuitionissimplyaconsequenceofthinking.Theywouldsaythatsomethingaboutthestrangerappealedtoyou,somethingthesalesmansaidordidsuggestedinsincerity,somethingabouttheprofessorfrightenedyou.INeachcase,theywouldexplain,youmadeaquickdecisionsoquick,infact,thatyouwereunawarethatyou'dbeenthinking.Inthecaseofthebreakthroughideas,thescholareswouldsaythatwhenpeoplebecomeengrossedinprobelmsorissues,theirunconsciousmindsoftencontinueworkingonthemlongaftertheyhaveturnedtheirattentionelsewhere.Thus,whenaninsightseemstocome"outofnowhere,"itisactuallyadelayedresultofthinking.
Whichviewofintuitionsisthecorrectone?Areintuitionsdifferentfromandindependentofthinkingornot?Perhaps,fornow,themostprudentansweristhatsometimestheyareindependentandsometimestheyarenot;wecan'tbesurewhentheyare,andthereforeitisimprudenttorelyonthem.BasicActivitiesinCriticalThinking
Thebasicactivitiesincriticalthinkingareinvestigation,interpretation,andjudgment,inthatorder.Thefollowingchartsummarizeseachactivityinrelationtotheothertwo.
Activity:Investigation
Definition:Findingevidencethatis,datathatwillanswerkeyquestionsabouttheissue
Requirements:Theevidencemustbebothrelevantandsufficient.
Activity:Interpretation
Definition:Decidingwhattheevidencemeans
Requirements:Theinterpretationmustbemorereasonablethancompetinginterpretations.
Activity:Judgment
Definition:Reachingaconclusionabouttheissue
Requirements:Theconclusionmustmeetthetestoflogic.
Aswenotedpreviously,irresponsiblethinkersfirstchoosetheirconclusionsandthenseekoutevidencetojustifytheirchoices.Theyfailtorealizethattheonlyconclusionworthdrawingisonebasedonathoroughunderstandingoftheproblemorissueanditspossiblesolutionsorresolutions.Isitacceptabletospeculate,guess,andformhunchesandhypotheses?Absolutely,Suchactivitiesprovideahelpfulstartingpointforthethinkingprocess.(Besides,wecouldn'tavoiddoingsoevenifwetried.)Thecrucialthingisnottolethunchesandhypothesesmanipulateourthinkinganddictateourconclusioninadvance.CriticalThinkingandWriting
Writingmaybeusedforeitheroftwobroadpurposes:todiscoverideasortocommunicatethem.Mostofthewritingyouhavedoneinschoolisundoubtedlythelatterkind.Buttheformercanbeveryhelpful,notonlyinsortingoutideasyou'vealreadyproduced,butalsoinstimulatingtheflowofnewideas.Forsomereason,theveryactofwritingdownoneideaseemstogenerateadditionalideas.
Wheneveryouwritetodiscoverideas,focusontheissueyouareexamingandrecordallyourthoughts,questions,andassertions.Don'tworryaboutorganizationorcorrectness.Ifideascomeslowlyu,bepatient.Iftheycomesuddenly,inarush,don'ttrytoslowdowntheprocessanddevelopanyoneofthem;simplyjotthemalldown.(Therewillbetimeforelaborationandcorrectionlater.)Directyourmind'seffort,butbesensitivetoideasonthefringeofconsciousness.Oftenthey,too,willprovevaluable.
Ifyouhavedoneyourdiscoverywritingwellandhavethoughtcriticallyabouttheideasyouhaveproduced,thetaskofwritingtocommunicatewillbeeasierandmoreenjoyable.Youwillhavemanymoreideascarefullyevaluatedonestodevelopandorganize.有中文版本么，英语看着费劲，结束了么 有中文版本么，英语看着费劲，结束了么
有的，《超越感觉》 有中文版本么，英语看着费劲，结束了么
京东上30块钱就能买到中文版，但是翻译得一般，建议看原文版。
。
失业了就去做试管，反正我的社保不会断一坏甜牛奶，心情恢复美丽
婆婆给了好多菜塞冰箱，今晚我们两个煮西兰花吃，因为没有炒菜的条件
晕死反正对于这个烹饪方式我眼不见为净，老公煮啥吃啥一会我洗碗，公平公正
看到你PO的面，我想到今天我朋友晒的泡面，加膏蟹加节虾的那种，哈哈哈天呐太恐怖了，我老公已经开始研究苦瓜怎么煮，准备当我明天的晚餐
太恐怖了如果一直就拖欠2个月，也还ok，毕竟现在经济形势不好，表面看似被迫不好的选择，其实基本也是同一个人当下情况下的最佳选择了，大差不差。平台暂停的消息爆出后，Voyager的股票在美国场外交易市场跌幅一度高达43%，最终收跌30.68%，报0.30美元/股。老娘要努力比她还屌高跟鞋定钉子老娘要努力比她还屌。
不知道啊。
该线路由山东汽配城开往山东技师学院。
BeyondFeelings
AGuidetoCriticalThinking
VincentRyanRuggiero
TothememoryofHowardTrumble,
whosequietpracticeoftheskills
detialedinthisbookwasaninspiration
tome,tohisfamily,andtoallwhoknewhim.
Contents
preface
Introduction1
PARTONETheContext
Chapter1WhoAreYou?
TheInfluenceofTimeandPlace
TheInfluenceofIdeas
TheinfluenceofMassCulture
The"Science"ofManipulation
TheInfluenceofPsychology
BecominganIndividual
Chapter2WhatIsCriticalThinking?
Mind,Brain,orBoth?
CriticalThinkingDefined
CharacteristicsofCriticalThinkers
TheRoleofIntuition
BasicActivitiesinCriticalThinking
CriticalThinkingandWriting
CriticalThinkingandDiscussion
AvoidingPlagiarism
Chapter3WhatIsTruth?
WhereDoesItAllBegin?
ImperfectPerception
ImperfectMemory
DeficientInformation
EventheWisestCanErr
TruthIsDiscovered,NotCreated
UnderstandingCauseandEffect
Chapter4WhatDoesItMeantoKnow?
RequirementsofKnowing
TestingYourOwnKnowledge
HowWeCometoKnow
WhyKnowingIsDifficult
ACautionaryTale
IsFaithaFormofKnowledge?
ObstaclestoKnowledge
Chapter5HowGoodAreYourOpinions?
OpinionsCanBeMistaken
OpinionsonMoralIssues
EvenExpertsCanBeWrong
KindsofErrors
InformedVersusUninformedOpinion
FormingOpinionsResponsibly
Chapter6WhatIsEvidence?
KindsofEvidence
EvaluatingEvidence
WhatConstitutesSufficientEvidence?
Chapter7WhatIsArgument?
ThePartsofanArgument
EvaluatingArguments
MoreDifficultArguments
PARTTWOThePitfalls
Chapter8TheBasicProblem:"MineIsBetter"
EgocentricPeople
EthnocentricPeople
Controlling"MineIsBetter"Thinking
Chapter9ErrorsofPerspective
PovertyofAspect
UnwarrentedAssumptions
TheEither/OrOutlook
MindlessConformity
Absolutism
Relativism
BiasfororAgainstChange
Chapter10ErrorsofProcedure
BiasedConsiderationofEvidence
DoubleStandard
HastyConclustion
OvergeneralizationandStereotyping
Oversimplification
ThePostHocFallacy
Chapter11ErrorsofExpression
Contradiction
ArguinginaCircle
MeaninglessStatement
MistakenAuthority
FalseAnalogy
IrrationalAppeal
Chapter12ErrorsofReaction
AutomaticRejection
ChangingtheSubject
ShiftingtheBurdenofProof
StrawMan
AttackingtheCritic
Chapter13TheErrorsinCombination
ErrorsofPerspective
ErrorsofProcedure
ErrorsofExpression
ErrorsofReaction
SampleCombinationsofErrors
ASensibleViewofTerminology
PARTTHREEAsTRATEGY
Chapter14KnowingYourself
CriticalThinkingInventory
UsingYourInventory
ChallengeandReward
Chapter15BeingObservant
ObservingPeople
ObservationinScienceandMedicine
TheRangeofApplication
BecomingMoreObservant
ReflectingonYourObservations
Chapter16SelectinganIssue
TheBasicRule:LessIsMore
HowtoLimitanIssue
SampleIssue:Pornography
SampleIssue:Boxing
SampleIssue:JuvenileCrime
NarrowingtheIssueFurther
Chapter17ConductingInquiry
WorkingwithInconclusiveResults
WheretoLookforINformation
KeepingFocused
HowMuchInquiryIsEnough?
ManagingLengthyMaterial
Chapter18FormingaJudgment
EvaluatingEvidence
EvaluatingYourSources'Arguments
MakingImportantDistinctions
ExpressingJudgments
Chapter19PersuadingOthers
GuidelinedsforPersuasion
AnUnpersuasivePresentation
APersuasivePresentation
Notes
IndexPreface
Whenthefirsteditionofthisbookappearedin1975,thedominantintellectualfocuswasstillsubjectiveity,feelings.Thatfocus,thelegacyofthe1960s,wasoriginallyanecessaryreactiontotherationalismandbehaviorismthatprecededit.Itdeclared,ineffect:"Peoplearenotrobots.Theyaremorethanthesumtotaloftheirphysiology.Theyhavehopes,dreams,emotions.Notwohumansarealikeeachhasasspecialperspective,auniquewayofperceivingtheworld.Andanyviewofhumanitythatignoresthissubjectivesideisadistortion."
Yet,despiteitsvalue,thefocusonfeelingswenttoofar.Likemanyothermovements,whatbeganasareactionagainstanextremeviewbecameanextremeviewitself.Theresultofthatextremismwasthemeglectofthinking.Thisbookwasdesignedtoanswerthatheglect.Theintroductiontothefirsteditionexplaineditsrationaleasfollows:
Theemphasisonsubjectivityservedtocorrectadangerousoversimplification.Butitisthekindofreactionthatcannotbesustainedforlongwithoutcausinganevenworsesituationtheneglectofthinking.Worsefortworeasons.First,becauseweliveinanageofmanipulation.Armiesofhuckstersanddemagoguesstandreadywiththerichresourcesofpsychologytoplayuponouremotionsandsubconsciousneedstopersuadeusthatsuperficialisprofound,harmfulisbeneficial,evilisvirtuous.Andfeelingsareespeciallyvulnerabletosuchmanipulation.
Secondly,becauseinvirtuallyeveryimportantareaofmodenlifelaw,medicine,government,education,science,business,andcommunityaffairswearebesetwithseriousproblemsandcomplexissuesthatdemandcarefulgatheringandweighingoffactsandinformedopinions,thoughtfulconsiderationofvariousconclusionsoractions,andjudiciousselectionofthebestconclusionormostappropriateaction....
[Today'scollegestudent]hasbeenconditionednottoundervaluesubjectivity,buttoovervalueit.Andsohedoesnotneedtohavehisfeelingsindulged.Rather,heneedstobetaughthowtosortouthisfeelings,decidetowhatextenttheyhavebeenshapedbyexternalinfluences,andevaluatethemcarefullywhentheyconflictamongthemselvesorwiththefeelingsofothers.Inshort,heneedstobetaughttothinkcritically.
Thereisanunfortunatetendencyamongmanytoviewfeelingandthoughtasmutuallyexclusive,toforceachoicebetweenthem.Ifwefocusonone,thenintheirviewwemustrejecttheother.Feeling,beingmorespontaneous,isanexcellentbeginningtothedevelopmentofconclusions.Andthought,beingmoredeliberate,providesawaytoidentifythebestandmostappropriatefeeling.Botharenatural.
Thinking,however,islessautomaticthanfeeling.Todoitwelldemandsasystematicapproachandguidedpractice.
Thegeneralattitudetowardthinkinghaschangedconsiderablysincethemid1970s.Theviewthatcriticalthinkingisanimportantskilltowhicheducationshouldgiveprominenceisnolongeraminorityview.Hundredsofvoiceshavejoinedthechoruscallingfortheadditionofcriticalthinkingobjectivestoexistingcoursesandeventhecreationofspecialcoursesinthinking.Thereislittledisagreementthatthechallengesofthenewmillenniumdemandmindsthatcanmovebeyondfeelingstoclear,impartial,criticalproblemsolvinganddecisionmaking.FeaturesofThisEdition
ThiseditionofBeyondFeelingsretainsthebasicorganizationofpreviouseditions.Thefirstsxectionexplainsthepsychological,philosophical,andsocialcontextinwhichcriticalthinkingtakesplaceanddescribesthehabitsandattitudesthatenhancesuchthinking.Thesecondsectionhelpsstudentsrecognizeandovercomecommonerrorsinthinking.Thethirdsectionprovidesastepbystepstrategyfordealingwithissues.
Withintheoveralldesgn,however,Ihavemadeanumberofchanges,mostinresponsetothehelpfulsuggestionsofreviewers.
InChapter1,anewsection"TheInflenceofIdeas"hasbeenadded.
InChapter3,anewsection=="UnderstandingCauseandEffect"hasbeenadded.
InChapter15,newexamplesofthevalueofobservationhavebeenadded.
InChapter17,thesubsection"Evaluateyourinformationsources"hasbeenexpanded.
Anumberofnew"DifferenceofOpinion"excerciseshavebeenadded.
Asinthepast,IhaveattemptedtofollowGeorgeOrwell'ssageadvece:"Neveruseaforeignphrase,ascientificword,orajargonwordifyoucanthinkofaneverdayEnglishequivalent."Thhisisnotalwayseasy.Whenlogiciansaretaughttermssuchasargumentumadhominem,nonsequitur,and"affirmingtheconsequent,"theynaturallywanttousethem.Argumentsfordoingsourgethemselvesuponus:forexample,"Thesearethemostpreciseterms.Don'tjointheranksofthecoddlersanddeprivestudentsofthem."InweakmomentsIsuccumbtothisappeal.(Untilthepreviousedition,forexample,Iincludedthetermenthymeme.Meaculpa...thereIgoagain.)Butistheprecisionofsuchtermstherealreasonformywantingtouserthem?Isitnotpossiblethatweprofessorsenjoyparadingourknowledgeorthatwearereluctanttospareourstudentsthestrugglewewereforcedtoundergo("Wesuffered,sotheyshouldtoo")?Itseemstomethatmodernculturealreadyprovidestomanyimpedimentstocriticalthinkingforustoaddmore.
Isitpossbletocarrythisplainlaguagecommitmenttoofar?Yes,andsomewillthinkIhavedonesoinavoidingtheterminferencesandspeakinginsteadofconclusions.ButIrespectfullydisagree.Lexicographerspontoutthatthedistinctionbetweenthesetermsisextremelysubtle,soitseemsmorereasonablenottodevotetimetoit.Alse,Iavoidusingthetermvalueswheneverpossibleforasomewhatdifferentreason.Thewordvalueissoassociatedwithrelativismthatitsuseinthiscontextcanunderminedthecrucialideathatargumentsdifferinquality.Formanystudents,thewordvalestriggersthethought,"Everyonehasarighttohisorhervalues;minearerightforme,andthoughtheymayneed'clarification'fromtimetotime,theyarenevertobequestioned."Thisthoughtimpedescriticalthinking.Acknowledgments
Iwishtoexpressmyappreciationtoallthosewhocontributedtothepreparationofthisedition.Specialthankstothosewhoreviewedthemanuscript:
AnnaVillegas,SanJoaquinDeltaCollege;
AimeeBissonette,InverHillsCommunityCollege;
JamesKruser,AlgredStateCollege;
SueCrowson,DelMarCollege;
ErinMurphy,UniversityofKentuchy;
AdrianPatten,UniversityofCincinnati;
DedaimiaStorrsWhitney,FranklinCollege;
LisaWeismanDavlantes,CaliforniaStateFullerton;
GeoffreyPhillipBellah,OrangeCoastCollege;
KarenHoffman,HoodCollege;
AimeeRossKilroy,LoyolaMarymountUniversity;
DeannaDavis,CollegeoftheCanyons
IamalsogratefultoHoghAugustine,DeltaCollege;LoriEbert,InternationalINstituteoftheAmericas;JohnGarcia,CerroCosoCommunityCollege;MichaelSmall,ShastaCollege;JoelBrouwer,MontcalmCommunityCollege;CynthiaGobatie,RiversideCimmunityCollege;AnneBenvennti,CerroCosoCollege;FredHeifnerJr.,CumberlandUniversity;andPhyllisToy,UniversityofSouthernIndiana.Introdeciton
BeyondFeelingsisdesignedtointroduceyoutothesubjectofcriticalthinking.Thesubjectmaybenewtoyoubecauseithasnotbeenemphasizedinmostelementaryandsecondaryschools.Infact,untilfairlyrecently,mostcollegesgaveitlittleattention.Forthepastfourdecades,thedominantemphasisihasbeenonsubjectivityratherthanobjectivity,onfeelingthaerthanonthought.
Overthepastseveraldecades,however,anumberofstudiesofAmerica'sschoolshavecriticizedtheneglectofcriticalthinking,andagrowingnumberofeducatorsandleadersinbusiness,industry,andtheprofessionshaveurgedthedevelopmentofnewcoursesandteachingmaterialstoovercomethatneglect.
Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatcriticalthinkingisoneofthemostimportantsubjectsyouwillstudyincollegeregardlessofyouracademicmajor.Thequalityofyourschoolwork,youreffortsinyourcareer,yourcontributionstocommunitylife,yourconductofpersonalaffairsallwilldependonyourabilitytosolveproblemnsandmakedecisions.
Thebookhasthreemainsections.Thefirst,"TheContext,"willhelpyouunderstandsubchimportantconceptsasindividuality,criticalthinking,Truth,knowledge,opinion,evidence,andargumentandovercomeattitudesandideasthatobstructcriticalthinking.Thesecondsection,"ThePitfalls,"willteachyoutorecognizeandavoidthemostcommonerrorsinthinking.Thethirdsection,"AStrategy,"willhelpyouacquirethevariousskillsusedinaddressingproblemsandissues.Thissectionincludestipsonidentifyingandovercomingyourpersonalintellectualweaknessesaswellastechniquesforbecomingmoreobsevant,clarifyingissues,conductinginquiries,evalatingevidence,analyzingotherpeople'sviews,andmakingsoundjudgments.
Attheendofeachchapter,youwillfindanumberofapplicatiionstochallengeyourcriticalthinkingandhelpyouexcerciseyourskills.Theseapplicationscoverproblemsandissuesbothtimelyandtimeless.Thefinalapplicationineachofthefirstthirteenchaptersinvitesyoutoexamineanespeciallyimportantissuesaboutwhichinformedopinionisdivided.
Studentssimetimesgettheideathatatextbookmustbereadpagebypageandthatreadingaheadviolatessomeunwrittenrule.Thisnotionismistaken.Students'backgroundknowledgevarieswidely;whatonestudentknowsverywell,anotherknowsonlyvaguelyandathirdistotallyunfamiliarwith.Anytimeyouneedorwanttolookaheadtoanexplanationinalaterchpter,byallmeansdoso.Let'ssayyoumakeastatementandafriendsays,"That'srelativism,pureandsimple."Ifyouaren'tsureexactlywhatshemeans,gototheindex,lookup"relativism,"proceedtotheappropriatepage,andfindout.
Lookingaheadisespeciallyprudentinthecaseofconceptsandproceduresrelevanttotheendofchapterapplication.Onesuchconcentisplagiarism.Ifyouarenotcompletelyclearonwhatconsitutesplagiasism,whyitisunacceptable,andhowtoavoidit,takeafewminutesrightnowtolearn.Lookforthesection"AvoidingPlagiarism"towardtheendoftheChapter2.Similarly,ifyouarenotasskilledasyouwouldliketobedoinglibraryorInternetresearch,itwouldbeagoodideatoreadChapter17now.Doingsocouldsaveyouragreatdealoftimeandeffortcompletinghomeworkassignments.以上是前言和简介部分，之前已打好，存在印象笔记里，总觉得看着不方便，也不能让更多人看到，于是选了这块八年前开始打字的地皮，希望能帮到大家~PARTONE:TheContextAnyonewhowishestomasteranactivitymustfirstunderstanditstoolsandrules.Thisisastrueofcriticalthinkingasitisofgolf,carpentry,flyingaplane,orbransurgery.Incriticalthinking,however,thetoolsarenotmaterilaobjectsbutconcepts,andtherulesgovernmentalratherthanphysicalperformance.
Thisfirstsectionexploressevenimportantconceptsindividuality,criticalthinking,truth,knowledge,opinion,evidence,andargumentwithachapterdevotedtoeach.Mostofhteseconceptsaresofamiliarthatyoumaybeincliendtowonderwhetherthereisanypointtoexamingthem.Thenanserisyes,forthreereasons.First,muchofwhatiscommonlybelievedabouttheseconceptsismistaken.Second,whoeverexaminsthemcarefullyisalwaysrewardedwithfreshinsights.Third,themorethoroughtyourknowledgeoftheseconcepts,themoreproficientyouwillbeinyourthinking.Chapter1WhoAreYou?Supposesomoneasked,"Whoareyou?"Itwouldbesimpleenoughttorespondwithyourname.Butifthepersonwantedtoknowtheentirestoryaboutwhoyouare,thequestionwouldbemoredifficulttoanswer.You'dobviouslyhavetogivethedetalsofyourheight,age,andweight.You'dalsohavetoincludeallyoursentimentsandpreferences,eventhesecretonesyou'veneversharedwithanyoneyouraffctionforyourlovedones;yourdesiretopleasethepeopleyouassociatewith;yourdislikeofyouroldersister'shusband;yourallegiancetoyourfavoritebeverage,brandofclothing,andmusic.
Yourattitudescouldn'tbeoverlookedeitheryourimpatiencewhenanissuegetscomplex,youraversiontocertiancourses,yourfearofhighplacesanddogsandspeakinginpublic.thelistwouldgoon.Tobecomplete,itwouldhavetoincludeallyourcharacteristicksnotonlythephysicalbutalsotheemotionalandintellectual.
Toprovideallthatinformationwouldbequiteachore.Butsupposethequestionerwasstillcuriousandasked,"Howdidyougetthewayyouare?"Ifyourpatiencewerenotyetexhausted,chancesareyou'danswersomethinglikethis:"I'mthiswaybecauseIchoosetobe,becauseI'veconsideredothersentimentsandpreferencesandattitudesandhavemakemyselections.TheonesIhavechosenfitmystyleandpersonalitybest."Thatanswerisnaturalenought,andinpartit'strue.Butinalargersense,it'snottrue.Theimpactoftheworldonallofusismuchgreaterthanmostofusrealize.TheInfluenceofTimeandPlaceNotonlyareyouamenberofaparticularspecies,HomoSapiens,butyoualsoexistataparticulartimeinthehistoryofthatspeciesandinaparticularplaceontheplanet.thattimeandplacearedefinedbyspecificcircumstances,understandings,beliefs,andcustoms,allofwhichlimityourexperienceandinfluenceyourthoughtpatterns.IfyouhadlivedinAmericaincolonialtimes,youlikelywouldhavehadnoobjectiontotheparacitceofbarringwomenfromservingonajury,enteringintoalegalcontract,owningproperty,orvoting.Ifyouhadlivedintheninetheenthcentury,youwouldhavehadnoobjectiontoyoungchildrenbeingdeniedaneducationandbeinghiredoutbytheirparentstoworksixteenhoursaday,norwouldyouhavegivenanythoughttothespecialneedsofadolescence.(theconceptofadolescencewasnotinventeduntil1904.)
IfyouhadbeenraisedintheMiddleEast,youwouldstandmuchclosertopeopleyouconversewiththanyoudoinAmerica.IfyouhadbeenraisedinIndeia,youmightbeperfectlycomfortablehavingyourparentschooseyourspouseforyou.IfyournativelanguagewereSpanishandyourknowledgeofEnglishmodest,youprobablywouldbeconfusedbysomeEnglishcolloquialisms.JamesHenslinofferstwoamusingexamplesofsuchconfusion:ChevroletNovasinitiallysoldverypoorlyinMexicobecausenovainSpanishmeans"itdoesn'twork";andPerduechickenswereregardedwithacertainsuspicion(orworse)becausethecompany'sslogan"Ittakesatoughmantomakeatenderchicken"becameinSpanish"Ittakesanarousedmantomakeachickenaffectionate".
PeoplewhogrowupinEurope,Asia,orSouthAmericahaveverydifferentideasofpunctuality.AsDanielGolemanexplains,"FiveminutesislatebutpermissibleforabusinessappontmentintheU.S.,butthirtyminutesisnormalinArabcountries.InEnglandfivetofifteenminutesisthe'correct'latenessforoneinvitedtodinner;anItalianmightcometwohourslate,anEthiopianstilllater,aJavanesenotatall,havingacceptedonlytopreventhishost'slosingface."Adifferentethnicoriginwouldalsomeandifferenttastesinfood.InsteadofcravingaNewYorkStropsteakandfrenchfries,youmightcrave"rawmonkeybrains"or"camel'smilkcheesepattiescuredindrycamel'sdung"andwasheddownwith"warmcamel'sblood."SociologistIanRobertsonsummeduptherangeofglobaldietarydifferencessuccinctly:"Americanseatoystersbutnotsnails.TheFrencheatsnailsbutnotlocusts.TheZuluseatlocustsbutnotfish.TheJewseatfishbutnotpork.TheHinduseatporkbutnotbeef.TheRussianseatbeefbutnotsnakes.TheChineseeatsnakesbutnotpeople.ThejaleofNewGuineafindpeopledelicious."[NOte:ThereferencetoHindusismistaken.]
Tosumup,livinginadifferentageorculturewouldmakeyouadifferentpersion.Evenifyourebelledagainstthevaluesofyourtimeandplace,theystillwouldrepresentthecontextofyourlifeinotherwords,theystillwouldinfluenceyourresponses.TheInfluenceofIdeas
Whenoneideaisexpressed,closelyrelatedideasaresimultaneouslyconveyed,logicallyandinescapably.Inlogic,thiskinshipisexpressedbythetermsequitur,Latinfor"itfollows."(Theconverseisnonsequitur,"itdoesnotfollow.")
Consider,forexcample,theideathatmanyteachersandparentsecpresstoyoungchildrenasawayofencouragingthem:"Ifyoubelieveinyourself,youcansucceedatanything."Fromthisitfollowsthatnothingelsebutbeliefneithertalentnorhardworkisnecessaryforsuccess.Thereasonthetwoideasareequivalentisthattheirmeaningsareinseparablylinked.
Inadditiontoconveyingideascloselylinkedtoitinmeaning,anideacanimplyotherideas.Forexample,theideathatthereisnorealdifferencebetweenvirtueandviceimpliesthatpeopleshouldnotfeelboundbycommonmoralstandards.SamuelJohnsonhadthisimplicationinmindwhenhesaid:"Butifhedoesreallythinkthatthereisnodistinctionbetwwnvirtueandvice,why,Sir,whenheleavesourhousesletuscountourspoons."
Ifwewerefullyawareofthecloselylinkedtoitinmeaningsandimplicationsoftheideasweencounter,wecouldeasilysortoutthesoundonesfromtheunsound,thewisefromthefoolish,andthehelpfulfromtheharmful.Butweareseldomfullyaware.Inmanycases,wetakeideasatfacevalueandembracethemwithlittleornothoughtoftheirassociatedmeaningsandimplications.Inthecourseoftime,ouractionsareshapedbythosemeaningsandimplications,whetherweareawareofthemornot.
Toappreciatetheinfluenceofideasinpeople'slives,considertheseriesofeventssetinmotionbyanideathatwaspopularinpsychologymorethanacenturyagoandwhoseinfluencecontinuestothisdaytheideathat"intelligenceisgeneticallydeterminedandcannotbeincreased."
Thatidealedresercherstodeviseteststhatmeasureintelligence.Themostfamous(badlyflawed)testdeterminedthattheaveragementalageofwhiteAmericanadultswas13andthat,amongimmigrants,theaverageRussian'smentalagewas11.34;theaverageItalian's11.01;theaveragePole's,10.74;andtheaveragementalageof"Negroes,"10.41.
Educatorsreadthetextresultsandthought,"Attemptstoraisestudents'intelligencearepointless,"sotheyreplacedacademiccurriculawithvocationalcurriculaandembracedamethodologythattaughtstudentsfactsbutnottheprocessofjudgment.
Legislatorsreadthetestresultsanddecided"We'vegottodosomethingtokeepintellecturallyinferiorpeoplefromenteringthecountry,"sotheyrevisedimmigrationlawstodiscriminateagainstsouthernandcentralEuropeans.
Eugenicists,whohadlongbeenconcernedaboutthewelfareofthehumanspecies,sawthetestsasagravewarning.Theythought,"Ifintelligencecannotbeincreased,wemustfindwaysofencouragingreproductionamongpeopleofhighterintelligenceanddiscouragingitamongthoseoflowerintelligence."
Theeugenicists'concerninspiredavarietyofactions.MargaretSanger'sPlannedParenthoodurgedthelowerclassestopracticecontraception.Otherssucceededinlegalizingpromotedforcedsterilization,notablyinVirginia.TheU.S.SupremeCourtupheldtheVirginialawwithJusticeOliverWendellHolmes,Jr.declaring,"Threegenerationsofimbecilesareenough."Overthenextfivedecades7,500women,incleding"unwedmother,prostitutes,pettycriminalsandchildrenwithdisciplinaryproblems"weresterilized.Inaddition,by1950over150,000supposedly"defective"children,manyrelativelynormal,wereheldagainsttheirwillininstitutions.They"enduredisolation,overcrowding,forcedlabor,andphysicalabuseincludinglobotomy,electroshock,andsurgicalsterilization."
Meanwhile,businessleadersreadthetestresultsanddecided,"Weneedpoliciestoensurethatworkersleavetheirmindsatthefactorygateandperformtheirassignedtasksmindlessly."Sotheyenactedthosepolicies.Decadeslater,whenEdwardsDemingporposedhis"qualitycontrol"ideasforinvolvingworkersindecisionmaking,businessleadersrememberedthosetestresultsandignoredDeming'sadvice.(Incontrast,theJapanesewelcomedDeming'sideas;asaresult,severaloftheirindustriessurgedaheadoftheirAmericancompetition.)
Thesearethemostobviouseffectsofhereditarianismbuttheyarecertainlynottheonlyones.Othersincludediscriminationagainstracialandethnicminoritiesandtheoftenpaternalisticpoliciesofgovernmentofferedinresponse.(somehistoriansalsolinkhereditarianismtothegenocidethatoccurredinNaziGermany.)
Theinnumerableideasyouhaveencounteredwillaffectyourbeliefsandbehaviorinsimilarwayssometimesslightly,atothertimesprofoundly.Andthiscanhappenevenifyouhavenotconsciouslyembracedtheideas.TheInfluenceofMassCulture
Incenturiespast,familyandteacherswerethedominant,andsometimestheonly,inflenceonchildren.Today,however,theinfluenceexertedbymassculture(thebroadcastmedia,newspaper,magazines,Internetandpopularmusic)oftenisgreater.
Byage18theaverageteenagerhasspent11,000hoursintheclassroomand22,000hoursinfrontofthetelevisionset.Heorshehashadperhaps13,000schoollessonsyethaswatchedmorethan750,000commercials.Byagethirtyfivethesamepersonhashadfewerthan20,000schoollessonsyethaswatchedaproximately45,000hoursoftelevisionandcloseto2millioncommercials.
Whateffectsdoesmassculturehaveonus?Toanswer,weneedonlyconsidertheformatsanddevicescommonlyusedinthemedia.Modernadvertisingtypicallybombardsthepublicwithslogansandtestimonialsbycelebrities.Thisapproachisdesignedtoappealtoemotionsandcreateartificialneedsforprodectsandservices.Asaresult,manypeopledevelopthehabitofrespondingemotionally,impulsively,andgulliblytosuchappeals.Theyalsotendtoacquirevaluesverydifferentfromthosetaughtinthehomeandtheschool.Adsoftenportrayplayasmorefulfillingthanwork,selfgratificationasmoredesirablethanselfcontrol,andmaterialismasmoremeaningfulthanidealism.
TelevisionProgrammersusefrequentsceneshiftsandsensoryappealssuchascarcrashes,violence,andsexualencounterstokeepaudienceinterestfromdiminishing.Thentheyaddfrequentcommercialinterruptions.Thisauthorhasanalyzedtheattentionshiftsthattelevisionviewersaresubjectedto.Inadramaticprogram,forexample,attentionshiftsmightincludecameraanglechanges;shiftsinstorylinefromonesetofcharacters(orsubplot)toanother,orfromapresentscenetoapastscene(flashback),ortofantasy;andshiftsto"newsbreaks,"tocommercialbreaks,fromonecommercialtoanotehr,andbacktotheprogram.Alsoincludedmightbeshiftsofattentionthatoccurwithincommercial.Ifoundasmanyas78shiftsperhour,exludingtheshiftswithincommercials.Thenumberofshiftswithincommercialsrangedfrom6to54andaveragedapproximately17perfifteensecondcommercial.Thetotalnumberofattentionshiftscameouttoover800perhour,orover14perminute.
Thismanipulationhaspreventedmanypeoplefromdevelopingamatureattentionspan.Theyexpecttheclassroomandtheworkplacetoprovidethesameconstentexcitementtheygetfromtelevision.That,ofcourse,isanimpoossibledemand,andwhenitisn'tmettheycalltheirteachersboringandtheirworkunfulfilling.Becausesuchpeopleseldomhavethepatiencetoreadbooksthatrequirethemtothink,manypublishershavereplacedseriousbookswithlightfarewrittenbycelebrities.
Evenwhenwritersofseriousbookdomanagetobecomepublishedauthors,theyareoftendirectedtogiveshort,dramaticanswersduringpromotionalinterviews,sometimesattheexpenseofaccuracy.Amanwhocoacheswritersfortalkshowsofferedoneclientthisadvice:"IfIaskyouwhetherthebudgetdeficitisagoodthingorabadthing,youshouldnotsay,'Well,itsimulatestheeconomybutitpassesonaburden.'Youhavetosay'It'sagreatidea!'or'It'saterribleidea!'Itdoesn'tmatterwhich."(Translation:"Don'tgiveabalancedanswer.Giveanoversimplifiedonebecauseitwillgetyounoticed.")
Printjournalismisalsointhegripofsensationalism.Asanewspapereditorobserved,"Journalistskeeptryingtofindpeoplewhoareat1orat9onascaleof1to10ratherthanpeopleat3to7[themoremoderatepositions]wheremostpeopleactuallyare."Anotherjournalistclaims,"Newsisnowbecomingmoreopinionthanverifiedfact.Journalistsareslippingintoentertainmentratherthantellingustheverifiedfactsweneedtoknow."
Today'spoliticiansoftenmanipulatepeoplemoreoffensivelythandojournalists.Instedofexpressiongtheirthought,somepoliticiansfindoutwhatpeoplethinkandpretendtosharetheirideas.Manypoliticianshirepeopletoconductpollsandfocusgroupstolearnwhatmessageswill"sell."Theyevengosofarastotesttheimpactofcertainwordsthatiswhywehearsomuchabout"trust,""familyu,""character,"and"values"thesedays.PoliticalscienceprofessorLarrySabatosaysthatduringtheClintonimpeachmenttrial,thepresidents'sadvisorsusedthetermprivatelivesoverandoverJamesCarvilleuseditsixtimesinonefourminutespeechbecausetheyknewitcouldpersuadepeopleintobelievingthepresident'slyingunderoathwasofnogreatconsequence.The"Science"ofManipulation
Attemptstoinfluencethethoughtsandactionsofothersarenodoubtasoldastime,butmanipulationdidnotbecomeascienceuntiltheearlytwentiethcentury,whenIvanPavlov,aRussianprofessorofpsychology,publishedhisresearchonconditioned(learned)reflexes.Pavlovfoundthatbyringingabellwhenhefedadog,hecouldconditionthedogtodroolatthesoundofthebellevenwhennofoodwaspresented.AnAmericanpsychologist,JohnWatson,wasimpressedwithPavlov'sfindingsandappliedthemtohumanbehavior.InWatson'smostfamousexperiment,heletababytouchalaboratoryrat.Atfirst,thebabywasunafraid.ButthenWatsonhitahammeragainstmetalwheneverthebabyreachedouttotouchtherat,andthebabybecamefrightenedandcried.Intime,thebabycriednotonlyatthesightoftherratbutalsoatthesightofanythingfurry,suchasastuffedanimal.Watson'sworkearnedhimthetitle"fatherofbehaviorism."
LesswellknownisWatson'sapplicationofbehavioristprinciplestoadvertising.Hespentthelatterpartofhiscareerworkingforadvertisingagenciesandsoonrecognizedthatthemosteffectiveappealtoconsumerswasnottothemindbuttotheemotions.Headvisedadvertisersto"tell[theconsumer]somethingthatwilltiehimupwithfear,somethingthatwillstirupamildrage,thatwillcalloutanaffectionateorloveresponse,orstrikeatadeeppsychologicalorhabitneed."Hisattitudetowasrdtheconsumerisperhapsbestindicatedbyastatementhemadeinapresentationtodepartmentstoreexecutives:"Theconsumeristothemanufacturer,thedepartmentstoresandtheadvertisingagencies,whatthegreenfrogistothephysiologist."
Watsonintroducedthesestrategiesinthe1920sand1930s,theageofnewpapersandradio.Sincetheadventoftelevision,theseadvertisingstrategieshavegrownmoresophisticatedandeffective,somuchsothatmanyindividualsandgroupwithpoliticalandsocialagendashaveadoptedthem.Thestrategiesworkforanumberofreasons,thechiefonebeingpeople'sconvictionthattheyareimpervioustomanipulation.Thisbeliefismistaken,asmanyresearchershavedemonstrated.Forexample,SolomonAschshowedthatpeople'sreactionscanbealteredsimplybychaingtheorderofwordsinaseries.Heaskedstudyparticipantstoevaluateapersonbyaseriesofadjectives.Whenheputpositiveadjectivesfirst"intelligent,industrious,impulsive,critical,stubborn,envious"theparticipantsgaveapositiveevaluation.Whenhereversedtheorder,with"envious"comingfirstand"intelligent"last,theygaveanegativeevaluation.
Similarly,researchhasshownthathumanmemorycanbemanipulated.Thewayaquestionisaskedcanchangethedetailsinaperson'smemoryandevenmakeapersonremembersomethingthatnverhappended!
Ofcourse,advertisersandpeoplewithpoliticalorsocialagendasarenotcontenttostimulateemotionsand/orplantideasinourminds.Theyalsoseektoreinforcethoseimpressionsbyrepeatingthemagainandagain.Themorepeoplehearasloganortalkingpoint,themorefamiliaritbecomes.Beforelong,itbecomesindistinguishablefromideasdevelopedthroughcarefulthought.Sadly,"thepackagingisoftendonesoeffectivelythattheviewer,listener,orreaderdoesnotmakeuphisownmindatall.Instead,heinsertsapackagedopinionintohismind,somewhatlikeinsertingaDVDintoaDVDplayer.Hethenpushesabuttonand'playsback'theopinionwheneveritseemsappropriatetodoso.Hehasperformedacceptablywithouthavinghadtothink."Manyofthebeliefsweholddearestanddefendmostvigorouslymayhavebeenplantedinourmindsinjustthisway.
Manyyearsago,HarryA.Overstreetnotedthat"aclimateofopinion,likeaphysicalclimate,issopervasiveathingthatthosewholivewithinitandknownoothertakeitforgranted."Theriseofmasscultureandthesophisticateduseofmanipulationhavemadethisinsightmorerelevanttodaythanever.TheInfluenceofPsychology
Thesocialandpsychologicaltheoriesofourtimealsohaveanimpactonourbeliefs.Beforethepastfewdecades,peoplewereurgedtobeselfdisciplined,selfcritical,andselfeffacing.Theywereurgedtopractivceselfdenial,toaspiretoselfknowledge,tobehaveinamannerthatensuredtheymaintainedselfrespect.Selfcenterednesswasconsideredavice."Hardwork,"theyweretold,"leadstoachievement,andthatinturnproducessatisfactionandselfconfidence."Byandlarge,ourgrandparentsinternalizedthoseteachings.Whentheyhonoredthemintheirbehavior,theyfeltproud;whentheydishonoredthem,theyfeltashamed.
Todaythetheorieshavebeenchangedindeed,almostexactlyreversed.Selfesteem,whichnineteenthcenturysatiristAmbroseBiercedefinedas"anerroneousappraisement,"isnowconsideredanimperative.Selfcenterednesshasbeentransformedfromviceintovirtue,andpeoplewhodevotetheirlivestohelpingothers,peopleonceconsideredheroicandsaintlike,arenowsaidtobeafflictedwith"adiseasetoplease."Theformulafforsuccessandhappinessbeginswithfeelinggoodaboutourselves.Studentswhodopoorlyinschool,wrkerswhodon'tmeasureuptothechallengesoftheirjobs,substanceabusers,lawbreakersallaretypicallydiagnosedasdeficientinselfesteem.
Inaddition,justasourgrandparentsinternalizedthesocialandpsychologicaltheoriesoftheirtime,somostcontemporaryAmericanshaveinternalizedthemessageofselfesteem.Wehearpeoplespeakofitovercoffee;wehearitendlesslyinvokedontalkshows.Challengestoitspreceptsareusuallymetwithdisapproval.
Butisn'tthetheoryofselfesteemselfevident?No.Anegativeperceptionofourabilitieswill,ofcourse,hadicapourperformance.Dr.MaxwellAmltzexplainstheamazingresultsoneeducatorhadinimprovingthegradesofschoolchildrenbychangingtheirselfimages.Theeducatorhadobservedthatwhenthechildrensawthemselvesasstupidinaparticularsubject(orstupidingeneral),theyunconsciouslysactedtoconfirmtheirselfimages.Theybelievedtheywerestupid,sotheyactedthatway.Reasoningthatitwastheirdefeatistattituderatherthananylackofabilitythatwasunderminingtheirefforts,theeducatorsetouttochangetheirselfimages.Hefoundthatwhenheaccomplishedthatn,theynolongerbehavedstupidly!Maltzconcludesfromthisandotherexamplesthatourexperiencescanworkakindofselfhypnotismonus,suggestingaconclusionaboutourselvesandthenurgingustomakeitcometrue.
ManyproponentsofselfesteemwentfarbeyondMaltz'sdemonstrationthatselfconfidenceisanimportantingredientinsuccess.Theyclaimedthatthereisnosuchthingastoomuchselfesteem.Researchdoesnotsupportthatclaim.Forexample,MartinSeligman,aneminentresearchpsychologistandfounderofthemovementknownaspositivepsychology,citessignificantevidencethat,ratherthansolvingpersonalandsocialproblems,includingdepression,themodernemphasisonselfesteemcausesthem.
Maltz'sresearchdocumentsthatlackofconfidenceimpedesperformance,avaluableinsight.Butsuichresearchdoesn'texplainwhjythemoregloabelconceptofselfesteemhasbecomesodominant.TheanswertothatquestionliesinthepopularizationoftheworkofhumanisticpsychologistssuchasAbrahamMaslow.Maslowdescribedwhathecalledthehierarchyofhumanneedsintheformofapyramid,withphysiologicalneed(foodanddrink)atthefoundation.Abovethem,inascendingorder,aresafetyneeds,theneedforbelongingnessandlove,theneedforesteemandapproval,andaestheticandcognitiveneeds(knowledge,understanding,etc.)Atthepinnacleistheneedforselfactualization,orfulfillmentofourpotential.InMaslow'view,thelowerneedsmustbefulfilledbeforethehigherones.It'seasytoseehowtheideathatselfesteemmustprecedeachievementwasderivedfromMaslow'stheory.
Othertheoriesmighthavebeenadopted,however.AnotableoneisAustrianpsychiatristViktorFrankl's,whichwasadvancedatroughlythesametimeasMaslow'sandwasbasedonbothFrankl'sprofessinalpracticeandhisexperiencesinHitler'ssconcentrationcamps.Franklarguesthatonehumanneedishigherthanselfactualization:selftranscendence,theneedtoriseabovenarrowabsorptionwithself.AccordingtoFrankl,"theprimordialanthropologicalfact[is]thatbeinghumanisbeingalwaysdirected,andpointingtosomethingorsomeoneotherthanoneself:toameaningtofulfilloranotherhumanbeingtoencounter,acausetoserveorapersontolove."Apersonbecomesfullyhuman"byforgettinghimselfandgivinghimself,overlookinghimselfandfocusingoutward."
makingselfactualization(orhappiness)thedirectobjectofourpursuit,inFrankl'sview,isultimatelyselfdefeating;suchfulfillmentcanoccuronlyas"theunintendedeffectofselftranscendence."Theproperperspectiveonlife,Franklbelieves,isnotwhatitcangivetous,butwhatitexpectsfromus;lifeisdailyevenhourlyquestioningus,challengingustoaccept"theresponsibilitytofindtherightanswertoitsproblemsandtofulfillthetaskswhichitconstantlysetsfor[eachofus]."
Findingmeaning,accordingtoFrankl'stheory,involves"perceivingapossibilityembeddedinreality"andsearchingforchallengingtasks"whosecompletionmightaddmeaningto[one's]existence."Butsuchperceivingandsearchingarefrustratedbythefocusonself:"Aslongasmodernliteratureconfinesitselfto,andcontentsitselfwith,selfexpressionnottosayselfexhibitionitreflectsitsauthors'senseoffutilityandabsurdity.Whatismoreimportan,italsocreatesabsurdity.Thisisunderstandableinlightofthefactthatmeaningmustbediscovered,itcannotbeinvented.Sensecannotbecreated,butwhatmaywellbecreatedisnonsense."
WhetherweadgreecompletelywithFrankl,onethingisclear:ContemporaryAmericanculturewouldbemarkedlydifferentiftheemphasisoverthepastseveraldecadeshadbeenonFrankl'theoryratherthanonthetheoriesofMaslowandtheotherhumanisticpsychologists.Allofuswouldhavebeenaffectedwecannolyimaginehowprofoundlyinourattitudes,values,andbeliefs.BecominganIndividual
INlightofwhatwehavediscussed,weshouldregardindividualitynotassomethingwearebornwithbutratherassomethingacquiredor,moreprecisely,earned.Individualitybeginsintherealizationthatitisimpossibletoescapebedinginfluencedbyotherpeopleandbycircumstance.Theessenceofindividualityisvigilance.Thefollowingguidelineswillhelpyouachievethis:
1.
Treatyourfirstreactiontoanyperson,issue,orsituationastentative.Nomatterhowappealingitmaybe,refusetoembraceituntilyouhaveexaminedit.
2.
Decidewhyyoureactedasyoudid.Considerwhetheryouborrowedthereactionfromsomeoneelseaparentorfriend,perhaps,oracelebrityorfictionalcharacterontelevision.Ifpossible,determinewhatspecificexperiencesconditionedyoutoreactthisway.
3.
Thinkofotherpossiblereacitonsyoumighthavehadtotheperson,issue,orsituation.
4.
Askyourselfwhetheroneoftheotherreactionsismoreappropriatethanyourfirstreaction.Andwhenyouanswer,resisttheinfluenceofyourconditioning.
Toensurethatyouwillreallybeanindividualandnotmerelyclaimtobeone,applytheseguidelinesthroughtoutyourworkinthisbook,aswellasinyoureverydaylife.Applications
Note:Oneofthebestwaystodevelopyourthinking(andwriting)skillsistorecordyourobservations,questions,andideasinajournalandthen,astimepermits,toreflectonwhatyouhaverecordedconsideringthemeaningandapplicationoftheobservations,answeringthequestions,elaboratingontheideas(and,whereappropriate,challengingthem),andrecordingyourinsights.Aninexpenseiveboundnotebookorspiralnotebookwillservethepurpose.Agoodapproachistorecordyourinitialobservations,questions,andideasontheleftsideofthepage,leavingtherightsideblankforyourlateranalysisandcommentary.Thevalueofthisreflectiveprocessissogreatthatyoushouldconsiderkeepingsuchajournalevenifyourinstructordoesnotmakeitaformalpartofthecourse.
1.
Doabriefstudyofattentionshiftssuchastheonedescribedinthechapter.Recordahalfhourshow.Thenplaytheshowbacktwice,thefirsttimecountingthenumberofshiftswhthintheprogram,excludingcommercials,andthesecondtimecountingonlythosewithincommercials.Completethenecessaryarithmeticandbepreparedtoshareyourresultsinclass.
2.
Reflectonyourfindingsinapplication1.Writeseveralparagraphsdiscussingtheimplicationsofthosefindingsforeducation,business,andfamilylife.
3.
Manypeoplecheerfullypay$6or$7agallonfordesignerfrinkingwaterbutmoanandgroanwhentheyhavetopey$3agallonforgasoline.Deosanythingyoureadinthischapterhelpyouunderstandwhythisisso?
4.
ImaginehowdifferentAmericamightbeifFrankl'semphasisonselftranscendenceandpersonalresponsibility,ratherthanMaslow'semphasisonselfactualizationandpopularculture'semphasisonselfesteem,ahdbeendominantforthepastfiftyyears.Listasmanywaysasyoucaninwhichoursocietymightbedifferenttodayandcommentonwhethereachwouldbebeneficialorharmful.Bepreparedtoexplainyourviewsinclassdiscussion.
5.
WatchoneofthemusicvideochannelsMTV,VH1,CMT,BETforatleastanhour.Analyzehowmenandwomenaredepictedinthevideos.Notesignificantdetails.Forexample,observewhethermenaredepictedinpowerrolesmorethanwomenandwhethermomenareportrayedasobjectsofmaledesire.Decidewhatattitudesandvaluesareconveyed.(Youmightwanttorecordasyouarewatchingsothatyoucanreviewwhatyouhaveseen,freezesignificantframesforcloseranalysis,andkeepyourobservationsforlaterreferenceorclassviewinganddiscussion.)
6.
Supposeyouaskedafriend,"Howdidyouacquireyourparticularidentityyoursentimentsandpreferencesandattitudes?"Thensupposethefriendresponded,"I'manindividual.Nooneelseinfluencesme.Idomyownthing,andIselectthesentimentsandpreferencesandattitudesthatsuitme."Howwouldyouexplaintoyourfriendwhatyoulearnedinthischapter?
7.
Askyourselfthequestion,WhoamI?Writedowntenanswerstothisquestion,eachonaseparateslipofpaper.Usethefirstthreeparagraphsofthischaptertohelpyouframeyouranswers.Arrangethepiecesofpaperinorderoftheirimportancetoyou.Thenexplainthearrangementthatis,whichselfdescriptionsaremostimportanttoyou,andwhy?
8.
Identifythevatiouspositiveandnegativeinfluencesthathaveshapedyou.Besuretoincluedetheparticularaswellasthegeneralandthesubtleaswellastheobviousinfluences.Whichofthoseinfluenceshavehadthegreatesteffectonyou?Explaintheeffectsaspreciselyasyoucan.
9.
Noteyourimmediatereactiontoeachofthefollowingstatements.Thenapplythefourguidelinesgiveninthischapterforachievingindividuality.
a.HealthcareworkersshouldberequiredtobetestedforHIV/AIDS.
b.Beautycontestsandtalentcompetitionsforchildrenshouldbebanned.
c.ExtremistgroupliketheKuKluxKlanshouldbeallowedtoholdralliesonpublicpropertyorbeissuedpermitstoholdparadesoncitystreets.
d.Freshmancompositionshouldbearequiredcourseforallstudents.
e.Highschoolandcollegeathletesshouldbetestedforanabolicsteroiduse.
f.Creationismshouldbetaughtinhighschoolbiologyclasses.
g.Polygamyshouldbelegalized.
h.Thevotingageshouldbeloweredtosixteen.
i.Theprisonsystemshouldgivegreateremphasistothepunishmentofinmatesthantotheirrehabilitation.
j.Doctorsandclinicsshouldberequiredtonotifyparentsofminorswhentheyprescribebirthcontroldevicesorfacilitateabortionsfortheminors.
k.Aman'sselfesteemisseverelyinjuredifhiswifemakesmoremoneythanhemakes.
l.Womenlikebeingdependentonmen.
10.Groupdiscussionexercise:Discussseveralofthestatementsinapplication9withtwoorthreeofyourclassmates,applyingthefourguidelinespresentedinthischapterfordevelopingindividuality.Bepreparedtoshareyourgroup'sideaswiththeclass.ADifferenceofOpinion
Thefollowingpassagesummarizesanimportantdifferenceofopinion.Afterreadingthestatement,usethelibraryand/ortheInternetandfindwhatknowledgeablepeoplehavesaidabouttheissue.Besuretocovertheentirerangeofviews.Thenassessthestrengthsandweaknessesofeach.Ifyouconcludethatoneviewisentirelycorrectandtheothersaremistaken,explainhowyoureachedthatconclusxion.If,asismorelikely,youfindthatoneviewismoreinsightfulthantheothersbutthattheyallmakesomevalidpoints,constructaviewofyourownthatcombinesinsightsfromallviewsandexplainwhythatviewisthemostreasonableofall.Presentyourresponseinacompositionoranoralreport,asyourinstructorspecifies.
Shouldcapturedterroristsbetriedinmilitaryorcriminalcourts?WhentheUnitedStatesdecidedtousethemilitarybaseatGuantanamoBay,Cuba,todetainindividualscapturedonthebattlefieldintheIraqwar,manypeopleprotestedthedecision.SomearguedthatcapturedindividualsshouldbeconsideredcriminalsratherthanprisonersofwarandaccordedtherightsguaranteedbytheU.S.constitutiontoallpeopleaccusedofcrimes.OthersarguedforclassifyingtheindividualsasprisonersofwarandtreatingthemasspecifiedintheGenevaConventionsof1949.Supportersofthegovernment'sdecisionrejectbotharguments,contendingthatcapturedterroristsareneithercriminalsnorsoldiersbut"unlawfulcombatants,"addingthatanyotherdesignationwouldimposeburdensontheUnitedStatesthatanyotherdesgnationwouldimposeburdensontheUnitedStatesthatwouldmakeitdifficulttofightterrorismandtherebythreatennationalsecurity.
BeginyouranalysibyconductingaGooglesearchusingtheterm"statuscapturedterrorists."
CHAPTER2WhatIsCriticalThinking?
WhenArthurwasinthefirstgrade,theteacherdirecterdtheclassto"think.""Now,lcass,"shesiad,"Iknowthisprobelmisalittleharderthantheoneswe'vebeendoing,butI'mgoingtogiveyouafewextraminutestothinkaboutit.Nowstartthinking."
ItwasnotthefirsttimeArthurhadheardthewordused.He'dhearditmanytimesathome,butneverquitethisway.Theteacherseemedtobeaskingforsomespecialactivity,somethingheshouldknowhowtostartandstoplikehisfather'scar."Vroommm,"hemutteredhalfaloud.Becauseofhisconfusion,hewasunawarehewasmakingthenoise.
"Arthur,pleasestopmakingnoisesandstartthinking."
Embarrassedandnotknowingquitewhattodo,helookeddownathisdesk.then,outofthecornerofhiseye,henoticedthatthelittlegirlnexttohimwasstaringattheceiling."Maybethat'sthewayyoustartthinking,"heguessed.Hedecidedtheothershadprobablylearnedhowtodoitlastyear,thattimehewashomewiththemeasles.Sohestareattheceiling.
Asheprogressedthroughtgradeschoolandhighschool,heheardthatsamedirectionhundredsoftimes."No,that'snottheanswer,you'renotthinkingnowthink!"Andoccasionallyhewouldhearfromparticularlyselfpityingteachersgiventomutteringtothemselvesaloud:"WhatdidIdotodeservethis?Don'ttheyteachthemanythinginthegradesanymore?Don'tyoupeoplecareaboutideas?Think,dammit,THINK."
SoArthurlearnedtofeelsomewhatguiltyaboutthewholematter.Obviously,thisthinkingwasanimportantactivitythathe'dfailedtolearn.Maybehelacckedthegrainpower.Buthewasresourcefulenough.Hewatchedtheotherstudentsanddidwhattheydid.Wheneverateacherstartedinaboutthinking,hescreweduphisface,furrowedhisbrow,scratchedhishead,strokedhischin,staredoffintospaceorupattheceiling,andrepeatedsilentlytohimself,"Let'sseenow,I'vegottothinkaboutthat,think,thinkIhopehedoesn'tcallonmethink.ThoughtArthurdidn'tknowit,that'sjustwhattheotherstudentsweresayingtothemselves.
YourexperiencemayhavebeensimilartoArthur's.Inotherwords,manypeoplemayhavesimpleytoldyoutothinkwithouteverexplainingwhatthinkingisandwhatqualitiesagoodthinkerhasthatapoorthinkerlacks.Ifthatisthecase,youhavealotofcompany.Extensive,effectivetraininginthinkingistheexceptionratherthantherule.Thisfactanditsunfortunatecnsequencesaresuggestedbythefollowingcommentsfromaccomplishedobserversofthehumancondition:
Themostinterestingandastoundingcontradictioninlifeistometheconstantinsistencebynearlyallpeopleupon"logic,""logicalreasoning,""soundreasoning,"ontheonehadn,andontheothertheirinabilitytodisplayit,andtheirunwillingnesstoacceptitwhendisplayedbyothers.
Mostofoursocalledreasoningconsistsinfindingargumentsforgoingonbelievingaswealreadydo.
Clearthinkingisaveryrarething,butevenjustplainthinkingisalmostasrare.Mostofusmostofthetimedonotthinkatall.Webelieveandwefeel,butwedonotthink.
Mentalindolenceisoneofthecommonestofhumantraints.
Whatisthisactivitythateveryoneclaimsisimportantbutfewpeoplehavemastered?Thinkingisageneraltermusedtocovernumerousactivities,fromdaydreamingtorelectionandanalysis.HerearejustsomeofthesynonymslistedinRoget'sThesaurusforthink:
appreciateconsultfancyreason
believecontemplateimaginereflect
cerebratedeliberatemeditateruminate
cogitatedigestmusespeculate
conceivediscusspondersuppose
considerdreamrealizeweigh
Allofthosearejustthenamesthatthinkinggoesunder.Theyreallydon'texplainit.thefactis,afterthousandsofyearsofhumans'experiencingthoughtandtalkingandwritingaboutthinking,itremainsinmanyrespectsoneofthegreatmysteriesofourexistence.Still,thoughmuchisyettobelearned,agreatdealisalreadyknown.Mind,Brain,orBoth?
Mostmodernresearchersusethewordmindsynonymouslywithbrain,asifthephysicalorganthatresidesinthehumanskullweresolelyresponsibleforthinking.Thispracticeconvenientlypresupposesthataproblemthathaschallengedthegreatestthinkersformillenniatherelationshipbetweenmindandphysicalmatterwassomehowsolvedwhennoonewaslooking.theproblemitselfandtheindividualswhospenttheirliveswrestlingwithitdeservebetter.
Neurosciencehasprovidedanumbberofvaluableinsightsintothecognitiveorthinkingactivitiesofthebrain.Ithasdocumentedthatthelefthemisphereofthebraindealsmainlywithdetailedlaguageprocessingandisassociatedwithanalysisandlogicalthinking,thattherighthemispheredealsmainlywithsensoryimagesandisassociatedwithintuitionandcreativethinking,andthatthesmallbundleofnervesthatliesbetweenthehemispheresthecorpuscallosumintegratesthevatiousfunctions.
Theresearchthatproducedtheseinsightsshowedthatthebrainisnecessaryforthought,butithasnotshownthatthebrainissufficientforthought.Infact,manyphilosopherslcaimitcannevershowthat.Theyarguethatthemindandthebrainaredemonstrablydifferent.Whereasthebrainisaphysicalentitycomposedofmatterandthereforesubjecttodecay,themindisametaphysicalentity.Examinebraincellsunderthemostpowerfulmicroscopeandyouwillneverseeanideaorconceptforexample,beauty,government,equality,orlovebecauseideasandconceptsarenotmaterilaentitiesandsohavemophysicaldimension.Where,then,dothesenonmaterialthingsreside?Inthenonmaterialmind.
ThelateAmeircanphilosopherWilliamBarrattobservedthat"historyis,fundamentally,theadventureofhumanconsciousness"and"thefundamentalhistoryofhumankindisthehistoryofmind."Inhisview,"oneofthesupremeironiesofmodernhistory"isthefactthatscience,whichownsitsveryexistencetothehumanmind,hashavtheaudacitytodenytherealityofthemind.Asheputit,"theoffspringdeniestheparent."
theargumentoverwhetherthemindisarealityisnottheonlyissueaboutthemindthathasbeenhotlydebatedoverthecenturies.Oneespeciallyimportanissueiswhetherthemindispassive,ablankslateonwhichexperiencewrites,asJohnLockeheld,oractive,avehiclebywhichwetaketheinitiativeandexcerciseourfreewill,asG.W.Leibnitzargued.thisbookisbasedonthelatterview.
CriticalthinkingDefined
Let'sbeginbymakingtheimportantdistinctionbetweenthinkingandfeeling.Ifeelandthinkaresometimesusedinterchangeably,butthatpracticecausesconfusion.Feelingisasubjectiveresponsethatreflectsemotion,sentiments,ordesire;itgenerallyoccursspontaneouslyratherthanthroughaconsciousmentalact.Wedon'thavetoemployourmindstofeelangrywhenweareinsulted,afraidwhenwearethreatened,orcompassionatewhenweseeapictureofastarvingchild.Thefelingsariseautomatically.
Feelingisusefulindirectingourattentiontomattersweshouldthingkabout;italsocanprovidetheenthusiasmandcommitmentnecessarytocompletearduousmentaltasks.However,feelingisneveragoodsubstituteforthinkingbecauseitisnotoriouslyunreliable.Somefeelingsarebeneficial,honorable,evennoble;othersarenot,aseverydayexperiencedemonstrates.Weofrenfeelilikedooingthingsthatwillharmusforexample,smoking,sunbathingwithoutsunscreen,tellingoffourprofessororemployer,orspendingtherentmoneyonlotterytickets.
ZinedineZidanewasoneofthegreatestsoccerplayersofhisgeneration,andmanyexpertsbelievedthatinhisfinalseason(2006)hewouldleadFrancetothepinnacleofsoccersuccesswinningthecovetedWorldCup.butthen,towardtheendofthechampionshipgameagainstItaly,heviciouslyheadbuttedanItalianplayerinfullviewofhundredsofmillionsofpeople.Therefereebanishedhimfromthefield,Francelostthematch,andasinglesurrendertofeelingforeverstainedthebrilliantcareerZidanehaddedicatedhislifetobuilding.Incontrasttofelling,thinkingisaconsciousmentalprocessperformedtosolveaproblem,makeadecision,orgainunderstanding.Whereasfeelinghasnopurposebeyondexpressiongitself,thinkingaimsbeyonditselftoknowledgeoraction.Thisisnottosaythatthinkingisinfallible;infact,agoodpartofthisbookisdevotedtoexposingerrorsinthinkingandshowingyouhowtoavoidthem.Yetforallitsshortcomings,thinkingisthemostreliableguidetoactionwehumanspossess.Tosumuptherelationshipbetweenfeelingandthnking,feelingsneedtobetestedbeforebeingtrusted,andthinkingisthemostreasonableandreliablewaytotestthem.
Therearethreebroadcategoriesofthinking:reflective,creative,andcritical.thefocusofthisbookisoncriticalthinking.theessenceofcriticalthinkingisevaluation.Criticalthinking,therefore,maybedefinedastheprocessbywhichwetestclaimsandargumentsanddeterminewhichhavemeritandwhichdonot.Inotherword,criticalthinkingisasearchforanswers,aquest.Notsurprisingly,oneofthemostimportanttechniquesusedincriticalthinkingisaskingprobingquestions.Wheretheuncriticalaccepttheirfirstthoughtsandotherpeople'sstatementsatfacevalue,criticalthinkerschallengeallideasinthismanner:
Thought:
ProfessorVilecheatedmeinmycompositiongrade.Heweightedsomethemesmorehavilythanothers.
Question:
Didhegradeeveryoneonthesamestadard?Werethedifferentweightingsjustified?
Thought:
Beforewomenenteredtheworkforce,therewerefewerdivorces.Thatshowsthatawoman'splaceisinthehome.
Question:
Howdoyouknowthatthisfactor,andnotsomeotherone(s),isresponsiblefortheincreaseindivorces?
Thought:
Acollegeeducationisn'tworthwhatyoupayforit.Somepeopleneverreachasalarylevelappreciablyhigherthantheleveltheywouldhavereachedwithoutthedegree.
Question:
Ismoneytheonlymeasureoftheworthofaneducation?Whataboutincreasedunderstandingofselfandlifeandincreasedabilitytocopewithchallenges?Criticalthinkingalsoemploysquestionstoanalyzeissues.Consider,forexample,thesubjectofvalues.whenitisbeingdiscussed,somepeoplesay,"Ourcountryhaslostitstraditionalvalues"and"Therewouldbelesscrime,especiallyviolentcrime,ifparentsandteachersemphasizedmoralvalues."Criticalthinkingwouldpromptustoask,
1.Whatistherelationshipbetweenvaluesandbeliefs?Betweenvaluesandconvictions?
2.AreallvaluesValueable?
3.Howawareistheaveragepersonofhisorhervalues?Isitpossiblethatmanypeopledeceivethemselvesabouttheirrealvalues?
4.Wheredoone'svaluesoriginate?Withintheindividualoroutside?Inthoughtorinfeeling?
5.Doeseducationchangeaperson'svalues?Ifso,isthischangealwaysforthebetter?
6.Shouldparentsandteachersattempttoshapechildren'svalues?CharacteristicsofCriticalThinkers
Anumberofmisconceptionsexistaboutcriticalthinking.Oneisthatbeingabletosupportbeliefswithreasonsmakesoneacriticalthinker.Virtuallyeveryonehasreasons,howeverweaktheymaybe.Therestofcriticalthinkingiswhetherthereasonsaregoodandsufficient.
Anothermisconceptionisthatcriticalthinersneverimitateothersinthoughtoraction.I(fthatwerethecase,theneveryeccentricwouldbeacriticalthinker.Criticalthinkingmeansmakingsounddecisions,regardlessofhowcommonoruncommonthosedecisionsare.
Itisalsoamisconceptionthatcriticalthinkingissynonymouswithhavingalotofrightanswersinone'shead.There'snothingwrongwithhavingrightanswers,ofcourse.Butcriticalthinkinginvolvestheprocessoffindinganswerswhentheyarenotsoreadilyavailable.
Andyetanothermisconceptionisthatcriticalthinkingcannotbelearned,thatoneeitherhasitordoesnot.Onthecontrary,criticalthingkingisamatterofhabit.themostcareless,sloppythinkercanbecomeacriticalthinkerbydevelopingthecharacteristicsofacriticalthinker.Thisisnottosaythatallpeoplehaveequalthinkingpotentialbutratherthateveryonecanachievedramaticimprovement.
Wehavealreadynotedonecharacteristicofcriticalthinkersskillinaskingappropriatequestions.Anotheriscontrolofone'ementalactivities.JohnDewayonceobservedthatmoreofourtimethanmostofuscaretoadmitisspent"triflingwithmentalpictures,randomrecollections,pleasantbutunfoundedhopes,flitting,halfdevelopedimpresstions."Goodthinkersarenoexcepiton.However,theyhavelearnedbetterthanpoorthinkershowtostopthatcasual,semiconsciousdriftofimageswhentheywishandhowtofixthieirmindsononespecificmatter,examineitcarefully,andformajudgmentaboutit.Tehyhavelearned,inotherwords,howtotakechargeoftheirthoughts,tousertheirmindsactivelyaswellaspassively.
Herearesomeadditionalcharacteristicsofcriticalthinkers,ascontrastedwiththoseofuncriticalthinkers:
CriticalThinkers...
Arehonestwiththemselves,acknowledgingwhattheydon'tknow,recognizingtheirlimitations,andbeingwatchfuloftheirownerrors.
Regardproblemsandcontroversialissuesasexcitingchallenges.
Striveforunderstanding,keepcuriosityalive,remainpatientwithcomplexity,andarereadytoinvesttimetoovercomeconfusion.
Basejudgmentsonevidenceratherthanpersonalpreferences,deferringjudgmentwheneverevidenceisinsufficient.Theyrevisejudggmentswhennewevidencerevealserror.
UnciricalThinkers...
Pretendtheyknowmorethantheydo,ignoretheirlimitations,andassumetheirviewsareerrorfree.
Regardproblemsandcontroversialissuesasnuisancesorthreatstotheirego.
Areimpatientwithcomplexityandthuswouldratherremainconfusedthanmaketheefforttounderstand.
Basejudgemntsonfirstimpressionsandgutreactions.Theyareunconcernedabouttheamountorqualityofevidenceandclingtotheirviewssteadfastly.CriticalThinkers...
Areinterestedinotherpeople'sideasandsoarewillingtoreadandlistenattentively,evenwhentheytenttodisagreewiththeotherperson.
Recognizethatextremeviews(whetherconservativeorliberral)areseldomcorrect,sotheyavoidthem,practicefairmindedness,andseekabalancedview.
Practicerestraint,controllingtheirfeelingsratherthanbeingcontrolledbythem,andthinkingbeforeacting.
UnciricalThinkers...
Arepreoccupiedwiththemselvesandtheirownopinionsandsoareunwillingtopayattentiontoothers'views.Atthefirstsignofdisagreement,theytendtothink,"HowcanIrefutethis?"
Ignoretheneedforbalanceandgivepreferencetoviewsthatsupporttheirestablishedviews.
Tendtofollowtheirfeelingsandactimpulsively.
Asthedesirablequalitiessuggest,criticalthinkingdependsonmentaldiscipline.Effectivethinkersexertcontrolovertheirmentallife,directtheirthoughtsratherthanbeingdirectedbythem,andwithholdtheirendorsementofanyideaeventheirownuntiltheyhavetestedandconfirmedit.JohnDeweyequatedthismentaldisciplinewithfreedom.Thatis,hearguedthatpeoplewhodonothaveitarenotfreepersonsbutslavestowhimorcircumstance:
Ifaman'sactionsarenotguidedbythoughtfulconclusions,thentheyareguidedbyinconsiderateimpulse,unbalancedappetite,caprice,orthecircumstancesofthemoment.Tocultivateunhindered,unreflectiveexternalactivityistofosterenslavement,foritleavesthepersonatthemercyofappetite,sense,andcircumstance.
TheRoleofIntuition
INtuitioniscommonlydefinedasimmediateperceptionorcomprehensionofsomethingthatis,sensiingorunderstandingsomethingwithouttheuseofreasonging.Someeverydayexperiencesseemtosupportthisdefinition.Youmayhavemetastrangerandinstantly"known"thatyouwouldbepartnersforlife.Whenacarsalesmantoldyouthatthepricehewasquotingyouwashisfinal,rockbottomprice,yourintuitionmayhavetoldyouhewaslying.Onthefirstdayofaparticularcourse,youmayhavehadastrongsensethatyouwouldnotdowellinit.
Someimportantdiscoveriesseemtohaveoccurredinstantaneously.Forexample,theGermanchemistKelulefoundthesolutiontoadifficultchemicalproblemintuitively.Hewasverytiredwhenheslippedintoadaydream.Theimageofasnakeswallowingitstailcametohimandthatprovidedthecluetothestructureofthebenzenemolecule,whichisaring,rahterthanachain,ofatoms.TheGermanwriterGoethehadbeenexperienceinggreatdifficultyorganizingalargemassofmaterialforoneofhisworkswhenhelearnedofthetragicsuicideofaclosefriend.Atthatveryinstant,theplanfororganizinghismaterilaoccurredtohimindetail.TheEnglishwriterSamuelTaylorColeridge(youmanhavereadhisRimeoftheAncientMarinerinhighschool)awokefromadreamwith200300linesofanewandcomplexpoemclearlyinmind.
Suchexamplesseemtosuggestthatintuitionisverydifferentfromreasoningandisnotinfluencedbyit.butbeforeacceptingthatconclusion,considerthesefacts:
Breakthroughideasfavortrained,activeminds.Itisunusualforsomeonetotallyuntrainedinasubjecttomakeasignificantnewdiscoveryaboutit.Thus,ifKekulehadbeenaplumber,Goetheabookkeeper,andColeridgeahairdresser,theywouldalmostcertainlynothavereceivedtheintuitionsforwhichtheyarefamous.
Someintuitionseventuallyprovetobemistaken.Thatyattractivestrangermayturnouttobenotyourlifelongpartnerbutapersonforwhomyoudevelopastrongdislike.Thecarsalesman'sfinalpricemayhaveprovedtobeexactlythat.Andinsteadofdoingpoorlyinthatcourse,youmayhavedonewell.
Itisdifficulttomakeanoverallassessmentofthequalityofourintuiotionsbecausewetentdtoforgettheonesthatprovemistakeninmuchthesamewayagamblerforgetshislosses.
Thesefactshaveledsomescholarstoconcludethatintuitionissimplyaconsequenceofthinking.Theywouldsaythatsomethingaboutthestrangerappealedtoyou,somethingthesalesmansaidordidsuggestedinsincerity,somethingabouttheprofessorfrightenedyou.INeachcase,theywouldexplain,youmadeaquickdecisionsoquick,infact,thatyouwereunawarethatyou'dbeenthinking.Inthecaseofthebreakthroughideas,thescholareswouldsaythatwhenpeoplebecomeengrossedinprobelmsorissues,theirunconsciousmindsoftencontinueworkingonthemlongaftertheyhaveturnedtheirattentionelsewhere.Thus,whenaninsightseemstocome"outofnowhere,"itisactuallyadelayedresultofthinking.
Whichviewofintuitionsisthecorrectone?Areintuitionsdifferentfromandindependentofthinkingornot?Perhaps,fornow,themostprudentansweristhatsometimestheyareindependentandsometimestheyarenot;wecan'tbesurewhentheyare,andthereforeitisimprudenttorelyonthem.BasicActivitiesinCriticalThinking
Thebasicactivitiesincriticalthinkingareinvestigation,interpretation,andjudgment,inthatorder.Thefollowingchartsummarizeseachactivityinrelationtotheothertwo.
Activity:Investigation
Definition:Findingevidencethatis,datathatwillanswerkeyquestionsabouttheissue
Requirements:Theevidencemustbebothrelevantandsufficient.
Activity:Interpretation
Definition:Decidingwhattheevidencemeans
Requirements:Theinterpretationmustbemorereasonablethancompetinginterpretations.
Activity:Judgment
Definition:Reachingaconclusionabouttheissue
Requirements:Theconclusionmustmeetthetestoflogic.
Aswenotedpreviously,irresponsiblethinkersfirstchoosetheirconclusionsandthenseekoutevidencetojustifytheirchoices.Theyfailtorealizethattheonlyconclusionworthdrawingisonebasedonathoroughunderstandingoftheproblemorissueanditspossiblesolutionsorresolutions.Isitacceptabletospeculate,guess,andformhunchesandhypotheses?Absolutely,Suchactivitiesprovideahelpfulstartingpointforthethinkingprocess.(Besides,wecouldn'tavoiddoingsoevenifwetried.)Thecrucialthingisnottolethunchesandhypothesesmanipulateourthinkinganddictateourconclusioninadvance.CriticalThinkingandWriting
Writingmaybeusedforeitheroftwobroadpurposes:todiscoverideasortocommunicatethem.Mostofthewritingyouhavedoneinschoolisundoubtedlythelatterkind.Buttheformercanbeveryhelpful,notonlyinsortingoutideasyou'vealreadyproduced,butalsoinstimulatingtheflowofnewideas.Forsomereason,theveryactofwritingdownoneideaseemstogenerateadditionalideas.
Wheneveryouwritetodiscoverideas,focusontheissueyouareexamingandrecordallyourthoughts,questions,andassertions.Don'tworryaboutorganizationorcorrectness.Ifideascomeslowlyu,bepatient.Iftheycomesuddenly,inarush,don'ttrytoslowdowntheprocessanddevelopanyoneofthem;simplyjotthemalldown.(Therewillbetimeforelaborationandcorrectionlater.)Directyourmind'seffort,butbesensitivetoideasonthefringeofconsciousness.Oftenthey,too,willprovevaluable.
Ifyouhavedoneyourdiscoverywritingwellandhavethoughtcriticallyabouttheideasyouhaveproduced,thetaskofwritingtocommunicatewillbeeasierandmoreenjoyable.Youwillhavemanymoreideascarefullyevaluatedonestodevelopandorganize.有中文版本么，英语看着费劲，结束了么 有中文版本么，英语看着费劲，结束了么
有的，《超越感觉》 有中文版本么，英语看着费劲，结束了么
京东上30块钱就能买到中文版，但是翻译得一般，建议看原文版。
